EC8652-WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION

1
EQUALIZATIO
N
 Outline

 Introduction
 Fundamentals of Equalization
 Survey of Equalization
Techniques
 Linear Equalizers
 Nonlinear Equalizers
 Algorithms for Adaptive
Equalization
 Introductio


n
The properties of mobile radio channels:
Multipath fading -> time dispersion, ISI
 Doppler spread -> dynamical fluctuation
These effects have a strong negative impact on the bit error
rate of any modulation.
 Mobile communication systems require signal processing
techniques that improve Signal at receiver
 Three popular techniques:
 Equalization: compensates for ISI
 Diversity: compensates for channel fading
 Channel coding: detects or corrects errors

These techniques can be deployed independently or jointly.

 Fundamentals of
 Equalization
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
 caused by multipath propagation (time dispersion) ;
 cause bit errors at the receiver;
 the major obstacle to high speed
data transmission over mobile radio channels.

 Equalization
 a technique used to combat ISI;

 usually track the varying channel adaptively.

 2 Operating modes:

 Training mode

 Tracking mode
 Operating modes of an
adaptive equalizer
 Training (first stage)
 A known fixed-length training sequence is sent by the
transmitter so that the receiver's equalizer may average to a proper
setting.
 The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the
receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficients in the worst
possible channel conditions
 The training sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary signal
or a fixed, prescribed bit pattern.
 Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is
sent.
 Operating modes of an
adaptive equalizer
 Tracking (second stage)
Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is sent.

As user data are received, the adaptive algorithm of the equalizer
tracks the changing channel and adjusts its filter characteristics over
time.
where user data is segmented into short time blocks.

 TDMAwireless systems are particularly well

suited for equalizers.
data in fixed-length time blocks,
training sequence usually sent at the beginning of a block
 Communication system with an adaptive
equalizer

Radio
x(t) Modulator Transmitte
Chann RF Front
r
el End

nb (t) +
Detector
Matched Filter IF Stage
f (t)
y(t)
Adaptive Decision
heq (t) Equalizer Maker
d
(t)
dˆ(t)
Σ
e(t)
 Relevant equations

y(t)  x(t)  f (t)  nb (t)

dˆ(t)  x(t)  f (t)  heq (t) 

nb (t)  heq (t)

heq (t)  ck (t  nTs )

heq (t)  f (t)   (t) k
1
To eliminate ISI, H
eq ( f ) 
we must F
have
an equalizer is an inverse filter of the (f)
channel.
 Survey of Equalization
 Equalization Techniques
techniques
general categories:
can be subdivided into two

linear equalization
 The output of the decision
maker is not used in the feedback
path to adapt the equalizer.
 nonlinear equalization

 The output of the decision maker is used in the

feedback
path to adapt the equalizer.

 Many filter structures are used to implement linear and

nonlinear equalizers

 For each structure, there are numerous algorithms used to

adapt the equalizer.
 Classification of
equalizers
Equalizer

Linear Nonlinear

Type
s ML Symbol
DFE MLSE
Detector

Transversal
Structures Transversal Lattice Transversal Lattice
Channel Est.

Zero forcing Gradient RLS LMS Gradient RLS LMS

Algorithms LMS RLS RLS RLS
Fast RLS Fast RLS Fast RLS Sq.
Sq. root RLS Sq. root RLS root RLS
 Most common structure:
Linear
 finite impulse response (FIR) filter
The types oftLTE
Twosimplest LrTuses
aE nsversal equalizer
only feed forward taps

 Transfer function is a polynomial in Z-1

 has many zeroes but poles (LTE)

only at z = 0
Usually simply called a transversal filter

 Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter

 has both feedforward and feedback taps
 transfer function is a rational function of Z-1 with poles
and zeros.
 .
 Most common structure-
Linear transversal equalizer
 Made up of tapped delay lines, with the tappings spaced a
symbol period (Ts) apart (LTE)
Assuming that the delay elements have unity gain and delay Ts, of a
linear

Basic linear transversal equalizer

structure
Tapped delay line filter with both feedforward and feedback taps
(IIR)
 Linear
Equalizers
Transversal filter implementation
(LTE)

Input

Output

Threshold Detector

This type of equalizer is the simplest.

 Linear

Equalizers
Current and past values of the received signal are linearly
weighted by the filter coefficient and summed to produce
the output,

 The output before decision making (threshold detection)

 The minimum MSE it can

achieve
 Linear
Lattice filter Equalizers
implementation

Numerical stable, faster convergence, Complicated

 Linear
• Each stage of latticeEqualizers
is characterized by
following recursive equation

.
•Output of the equalizer is given by,
 Linear
 Two main advantages ofEqualizers
the lattice equalizer
 numerical stability
 faster convergence

 Uniquestructure allows dynamic of the

effective
assignmentlength most
When channel is not very time dispersive Only a fraction
of the stages (length can be decreased) are used.
channel becomes more time dispersive

Length can be increased without stopping the operation

Drawback: more complicated than LTE

 Nonlinear

Equalization
It use both feed forward & feedback filters.

 Nonlinear equalizers are used in applications where the

channel distortion is too severe for a linear equalizer to
handle.

 Three very effective nonlinear equalizer

 Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

 Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE)
 Decision Feedback
Equalization

(DFE)
DFE Can be realized in either the direct transversal form or
as a
lattice filter.

 The LTE form consists of a feedforward filter (FFF) and a

feedback filter (FBF).
The FBF is driven by decisions on the output of the detector, and its
coefficients can be adjusted to cancel the ISI on the current
symbol from past detected symbols.

 The equalizer has N1 + N2 + 1 taps in FFF and N3 taps in FBF

 Decision Feedback
Input
(DFE
Equalization
)
Output

Feedforward Filter

Feedback Filter
 Decision Feedback
Equalization
(DFE)
The output of DFE

The minimum mean square error of DFE

 Decision Feedback
Equalization
(DFE)
Conclusion
an LTE is well behaved when the channel spectrum is
comparatively flat
a DFE is more appropriate for
severely distorted wireless channels.
the performance of an LTE reduced
and the mean squared error of a DFE is much better
than a LTE.
Another form of DFE-predictive
DFE
 Algorithms for Adaptive
Equalization
Three classic equalizer algorithms

Zero Forcing Algorithm (ZF)

Least Mean Square Algorithm (LMS)
 Zero Forcing (ZF)
Criterion: Algorithm
to force the samples of the combined channel and equalizer
impulse response to zero at all but one of sample points in the
tapped delay line filter.

Disadvantage:
may excessively amplify noise at frequencies where the
folded channel spectrum has high attenuation.

Suitability:
Wireline communications
1
H eq ( f ) 1
, f  2T
 H ch
(f)
 Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm
Criterion:
to minimize the mean square error (MSE)
between the
desired equalizer output and the actual equalizer output.
yk
yk-1 yk-2
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

w0 w1 wN
w2
dˆk
Adaptive algorithm that updates the weights Σ
ek
Σ
Prior knowledge:
dk
• Define the input signal to the equalizer as a
vector yk where

• Output of the adaptive equalizer is a scalar

given by

• A weight vector can be written

as
• Output of the adaptive equalizer is re written
as
• When the desired equalizer output is known
(i.e dk=xk), the error signal ek is given by
• To compute the mean square error at
time instant k, above equation is squared to
obtain

• Taking the expected value over k yields

of

• Instead cross correlation vector p between the

desired response and the input signal is defined
as
DIVERSITY
 Diversit
• Powerful communicationyreceiver
technique
• Compensate fading channel impairments.
• Multiple Tx. & Rx. Antenna
• Multiple copies of signal transmitted
• Selecting best signal
• Reduce small-scale fading
 Micro
Diversity
• Signal from
tx.Antenna combined.
• Reduce the small
scale fading.
 Types of Micro
• Diversity
Spatial Diversity- several antenna separated in
space
• Temporal Diversity- transmit signal at different
times
• Frequency Diversity- Transmission of signal at
different frequencies.
• Angular Diversity- Multiple antenna with
different antenna patterns.
• Polarization Diversity- Multiple antenna with
different polarization.
 Spatial
Diversity
• Space Diversity (or)
Antenna Diversity
uses multiple antennas
to improve the quality
of signal.
• Used in Urban & Indoor
environment.
 Temporal
Diversity
• Signal is transmitted repeatedly at multiple
times.
• It can be realized by,
– Repetition coding
– Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ)
– Combination of Interleaving & Coding
Repetition coding
–Repeat after long interval to achieve
decorrelation, but highly BW inefficient.
Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ)
–Receiver response if the received signal is
faded ,and retransmission takes place.
Combination of Interleaving & Coding
–Advanced version of repetition coding(FEC)
 Frequency
Diversity
• Only 1 Antenna is needed but BW ineffecient.
• To make least correlation, frequencies
are separated by more than one
coherrent bandwidth (Bc)
 Angular / Pattern
Diversity
• Used in conjunction
with spatial diversity.
• Enhance the
decorrelation of closely
spaced antennas by
using different antenna
patterns
 Polarization
Diversity
• Transmitted signal with
horizontal and vertical
polarization received
by antenna with two
elements and diversity
combining technique.
 Macro
diversity
• Kind of Space Diversity & distance is longer.
• Distance(order of tens & hundreds of
meters)
• Two Implementation methods:
– On frequency Repeaters
– Simulcast
 Diversity Reception
• Selection Diversitymethod
• The best copy is selected based on SNR and it
is processed (demodulated, decoded),while
other copies are discarded.
• Combining Diversity
• All copies of signal are combined before or
after demodulation & these combined signal
get decoded.
 Diversity Reception method
• Selection Techniques • Combining Techniques
• RSSI driven Selection • Maximal Ratio Combining
Diversity (Received-Signal- (MRC)
strength-indication) • Equal Gain Combining(EGC)
• BER Driven Selection
Diversity (Bit Error Rate)
 Rake
• Receiver
Disadvantage of CDMA is multipath Interference.
• It is Reduced by Combining both direct &
reflected signal.
• Receiver used for this purpose is called RAKE
RECEIVER.