Chapter 2

Digital computation and

intelligent devices
 chapter is concerned with
•principles of digital computation and its application in measurement
systems.
•The computer is not actually part of the measurement system but
merely works with it by taking data from the system.
•In early applications of digital signal processing, the computer
remained as a distinctly separate component within the measurement
system
•The development of measurement systems in the form of intelligent
devices in which the computational element (usually called a
microcomputer or microprocessor) is much more closely integrated into
the measurement system.
•These devices are known by various names such as intelligent
instruments, smart sensors and smart transmitters.
Elements of Computer
 Elements of Computer
• The primary function of a digital computer is the manipulation of data
• These elements are collectively known as the computer hardware,
and each element exists physically as one or more integrated circuit
chips mounted on a printed circuit board.
• (CPU) consists of a single microprocessor called a microcomputer.
• The distinction between the terms ‘micro computer’, ‘minicomputer’
and ‘mainframe computer’ is a very arbitrary division made according
to relative computer power.
1. central processing unit (CPU)
• Brain of the system- input data collected, processing as per the
program and give result as output
• operation, the CPU makes use of one or more special storage
locations within itself known as registers
• arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), which is where all arithmetic
operations are evaluated
 Elements of Computer
• CPU operates according to a sequential list of required operations
defined by a computer program, known as the computer software.
computer memory
• serves several other functions besides this role of holding the
computer program.
• to provide temporary storage locations uses to store variables
during execution of the computer program
• to store data tables that are used for scaling and variable
conversion purposes during program execution
 2.Memory
• Fig shows memory size of 65 536 storage units
• it is essential to be provided for giving a unique label
to each storage box.
• by labelling the first box as 0, the next one as 1 and
so on for the rest of the storage locations.
• These numbers are known as the memory addresses
• Two types of computer memory are RAM, ROM.
• The importance of ROM becomes apparent if the
behavior of each kind of memory when the power
supply is turned off is considered. At power-off time,
RAM loses its contents but ROM maintains them.
• Intelligent devices normally use ROM for storage of
the program and data tables and just have a small
amount of RAM that is used by the CPU for temporary
variable storage during program execution.
 3.Input–Output (I/O) interface
• I/O Allows the computer to communicate with the outside world by
reading in data values and outputting results after the appropriate
computation has been executed.
• In an intelligent device, reading in the values obtained from one or
more sensors and outputting a processed value for presentation at
the instrument output. All such external peripherals are identified by
a unique number, as for memory addresses
• Communication between these three computer elements is provided
by three electronic highways known as the data bus, the address
bus and the control bus.
• item of data being transferred and the address where it is being
sent. items of information could be conveyed along a single bus,
instead two buses are called the data bus and the address bus.
• This timing information is carried by a third highway known as the
control bus.
 Number systems
• Decimal system is the best known number system, have any one of
ten values within the range 0–9, but it is not very suitable for use
by digital computers.
• four element display LCD can directly represent decimal numbers in
the range 0–9999.
• fundamental unit of data storage within a digital computer is a
memory element known as a bit. means that numbers must be
entered in binary format, where each digit in the number can only
have one of two values, 0 or 1. Electronically as either zero or non-
zero voltages.
• Eg binary number 1111, the first digit (starting from the right-hand
side) represents 1, the next 2, the next 4 and the final, leftmost digit
• represents 8, Thus the decimal equivalent is 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15.
• Tutorial: Convert the following 8-bit binary number to its decimal
equivalent: 10110011
• Memory elements are combined into larger units known as bytes,
consist of 8 bits.
• memory unit consisting of 8 bits can store 8-digit binary numbers in
the range 00000000 to 11111111 (equivalent to decimal numbers in
the range 0 to 255).
• Eg: A binary number in this system of 10010011 for instance would
correspond with the decimal number 147. But it is not enough.
• Therefore, Numbers are normally stored in units of either 2 or 4
bytes. which allow the storage of integer (whole) numbers in the
range 0–65535 or 0–4294967296.
• expressing the sign of numbers, ie., + and - , do this is to reserve
the most significant (left-hand bit) ‘0’ representing a positive number
and ‘1’ a negative number.
• This alters the ranges of numbers representable in a 1- byte storage
unit to -127 to +127, as only 7 bits are left to express the magnitude
of the number.
• This system the binary number 10010011 translates to the decimal
number -19 and 00010011 translates to +19.
• one’s and two’s complements: a number is formed by reversing all
digits in the binary representation of the magnitude of a number,
changing 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s, and then changing the left-hand bit to
a 1 if the original number was negative. The two’s complement is then
formed by adding 1 at the least significant (right-hand) end of the
one’s complement
• Eg 1. Find the one’s and two’s complement 8-bit binary representation
of the following decimal numbers: 56 - 56 73 119 27 – 47
Take first the decimal value of 56
Form 7-bit binary representation: 0111000
Reverse digits in this: 1000111
Add sign bit to left-hand end to form one’s complement: 01000111 one’s
component Ans.
Form two’s complement by adding one to one’s complement:
01000111+1= 01001000 and so on….
Result
 floating-point representation
• divides each memory storage unit (notionally, not physically) into
three fields, known as the sign field, the exponent field and the
mantissa field.
• common subdivision of a 32-bit (4-byte) storage unit is to have a 7-
bit exponent field and a 24-bit mantissa field, and 1 bit for sign field.

• multiplying the number in the mantissa field by 2, raised to the power

of the number in the exponent field. Negative as well as positive
exponents are obtained by biasing the exponent field by 64 (for a 7-
bit field), such that a value of 64 is interpreted as an exponent of 0, a
value of 65 as an exponent of 1, a value of 63 as an exponent of -1
etc.
• Eg: The contents of the storage unit are
00111110000000000000000001110111 what is the value represent
in decimal?
Sign bit field has a zero = it is by changing into 1 as per one’s
component, it is positive ie, +
Exponent field has a value of 0111110 (decimal 62)
Mantissa field has a value of 000000000000000001110111 (decimal
119)
The number stored is +119 x 2-2 Ans

• Changing the first (sign) bit to a 1 would change the number stored
to - 119 x 2-2.
• enter numbers in these binary forms, the procedure would be both
highly tedious and also very prone to error. Simpler ways of entering
binary numbers are octal and hexadecimal numbers.
• Octal numbers is a base of 8 and consist of decimal digits in the
range 0–7 that each represent 3 binary digits. Thus 8 octal digits
represent a 24-bit binary number.
• Hexadecimal numbers have a base of 16. Decimal digits in the
range 0–9 and letters in the range A–F that each represent 4 binary
digits. Decimal digits 0–9 translate directly to the decimal values 0–9
and the letters A–F translate respectively to the decimal values 10–
15.
• Eg: 1 Convert the octal number 7654 to binary.
Solution: Using the table above, write down the binary equivalent of
each octal digit:
!7 ! 6 ! 5 ! 4 ! = j 111 j 110 j 101 j 100 j. Thus, the binary code is
111110101100.
Eg: 2. Convert the hexadecimal number ABCD to binary
Solution: Using the table above, write down the binary equivalent of
each hexadecimal digit:
j A j B j C j D j = j 1010 j 1011 j 1100 j 1101 j. Thus, the binary code is
1010101111001101.
Eg: 3. Convert the binary number 010111011001 into octal and
hexadecimal
• Eg.4 The 24-bit binary number 011111001001001101011010 is to be
entered into a computer. How would it be entered using (a) octal code
and (b) hexadecimal code?
• In carrying out such conversions, it is essential that the groupings of
binary digits start from the right-hand side.
• Groupings starting at the left-hand side give completely wrong
values unless the number of binary digits happens to be an integer
multiple of the grouping size.
• Consider a 10-digit binary number: 1011100011. Grouping digits
starting at the right-hand side gives the values 1343 octal and 2E3
hexadecimal.
• Grouping digits starting at the left gives the (incorrect) values of
5611 octal and B83 hexadecimal.
• When converting a binary number to octal or hexadecimal
representation, a check must also be made that all of the binary
digits represent data. In some systems, the first (left-hand) digit is
used as a sign bit and the last (right-hand) digit is used as a parity
bit.
 Analogue-to-digital converters
• Important factors in the design of an analogue-to-digital converter are the
speed of conversion and the number of digital bits used to represent the
analogue signal level.
• The minimum number of bits used in analogue-to-digital converters is 8.

Fig. Operational amplifier connected as ’sample and hold’ circuit

• analogue signal can be represented to a resolution of 1 part in 256 if the input

signal is carefully scaled to make full use of the converter range .

•However, common to use either 10 bit or 12 bit analogue-to-digital converters,
which give resolutions respectively of 1 part in 1024 and 1 part in 4096.
•Simplest analog-to-digital converter