Anatomy and Physiology of the

Digestive System
Presented by
Musaddad Kamal, M.Kep., Ns., Sp. Kep M.B.
Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive
System
• Digestion of food is the mechanical breakdown that results from
chewing, churning, and mixing with fluid and chemical reactions in
which food is reduced to its simplest form.
• Enzymes are the proteinlike substances that act as catalysts to speed
up chemical reactions. They are an essential part of the chemistry of
digestion.

• Most enzymes have one specific function. Each enzyme works best at
a specific pH. For example, the enzyme amylase in the saliva breaks
down starches into sugars.
Digestion process
• Digestion begins in the mouth, where chewing mechanically breaks
down food.
• The food mixes with saliva, which contains ptyalin (salivary amylase),
an enzyme that acts on cooked starch to begin its conversion to
maltose.
• The longer an individual chews food, the more starch digestion occurs
in the mouth.
• Proteins and fats are broken down physically but remain unchanged
chemically because enzymes in the mouth do not react with these
nutrients.
• Chewing reduces food particles to a size suitable for swallowing, and saliva provides
lubrication to further ease swallowing of the food.

• The epiglottis is a flap of skin that closes over the trachea as a person swallows to prevent
aspiration.

• Swallowed food enters the esophagus, and wavelike muscular contractions (peristalsis)
move the food to the base of the esophagus, above the cardiac sphincter. Pressure from a
bolus of food at the cardiac sphincter causes it to relax, allowing the food to enter the
fundus, or uppermost portion, of the stomach.
• The chief cells in the stomach secrete pepsinogen; and the pyloric glands
secrete gastrin, a hormone that triggers parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric
acid (HCl). The parietal cells also secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (IF), which is
necessary for absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum.
• HCl turns pepsinogen into pepsin, a protein-splitting enzyme.
• The body produces gastric lipase and amylase to begin fat and starch
digestion, respectively. A thick layer of mucus protects the lining of the
stomach from autodigestion.
• Alcohol and aspirin are two substances directly absorbed through the lining
of the stomach. The stomach acts as a reservoir where food remains for
approximately 3 hours, with a range of 1 to 7 hours.
• Food leaves the antrum, or distal stomach, through the pyloric
sphincter and enters the duodenum.
• Food is now an acidic, liquefied mass called chyme. Chyme flows into
the duodenum and quickly mixes with bile, intestinal juices, and
pancreatic secretions.
• The small intestine secretes the hormones secretin and cholecysto-
kinin (CCK). Secretin activates release of bicarbonate from the
pancreas, raising the pH of chyme. CCK inhibits further gastrin
secretion and initiates release of additional digestive enzymes from
the pancreas and gallbladder.
CCK inhibits further gastrin secretion and initiates release of
additional digestive enzymes from the pancreas and gallbladder.
• Bile is manufactured in the liver and concentrated and stored in the
gallbladder.
• It acts as a detergent because it emulsifies fat to permit enzyme
action while suspending fatty acids in solution.
• Pancreatic secretions contain six enzymes: amylase to digest starch;
lipase to break down emulsified fats; and trypsin, elastase,
chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase to break down proteins
• Peristalsis continues in the small intestine, mixing the secretions with chyme.
• The mixture becomes increasingly alkaline, inhibiting the action of the gastric
enzymes and promoting the action of the duodenal secretions.
• Epithelial cells in the small intestinal villi secrete enzymes (e.g., sucrase, lactase,
maltase, lipase, and pepti- dase) to facilitate digestion.
• The major portion of digestion occurs in the small intestine, producing glucose,
fructose, and galactose from carbohydrates; amino acids and dipeptides from
proteins; and fatty acids, glycerides, and glycerol from lipids.
• Peristalsis usually takes approximately 5 hours to pass food through the small
intestine
Absorption
• Absorption. The small intestine is the primary absorption site for
nutrients. It is lined with fingerlike projections called villi.
• Villi increase the surface area available for absorption. The body
absorbs nutrients by means of passive diffusion, osmosis, active
transport, and pinocytosis
• Carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and water-soluble vitamins are
absorbed by the small intestine, processed in the liver, and released
into the portal vein circulation. Fatty acids are absorbed in the
lymphatic circulatory systems through lacteal ducts at the center of
each microvilli in the small intestine.
Metabolism and Storage of Nutrients.
• Metabolism refers to all of the biochemical reactions within the cells
of the body.
• Metabolic processes are anabolic (building) or catabolic (breaking
down).
• Some of the nutrients required by the body are stored in tissues.
• The major form of body reserve energy is fat, stored as adipose tissue.
• Protein is stored in muscle mass. When the energy requirements of
the body exceed the energy supplied by ingested nutrients, stored
energy is used.
• Monoglycerides from the digested portion of fats are converted to
glucose by gluconeogenesis.
• Amino acids are also converted to fat and stored or catabolized into energy
through gluconeogenesis.
• All body cells except red blood cells and neurons oxidize fatty acids into ketones
for energy when dietary carbohydrates (glucose) are not adequate.
• Glycogen, synthesized from glucose, provides energy during brief periods of
fasting (e.g., during sleep). It is stored in small reserves in liver and muscle tissue.
three main processes metabolism:
• Nutrient metabolism consists of three main processes:
• 1. Catabolism of glycogen into glucose, carbon dioxide, and water
(glycogenolysis)
• 2. Anabolism of glucose into glycogen for storage (glycogenesis)
• 3. Catabolism of amino acids and glycerol into glucose for energy
(gluconeogenesis)
Elimination
• Elimination. Chyme moves by peristaltic action through the ileocecal
valve into the large intestine, where it becomes feces
• Water absorbs in the mucosa as feces move toward the rectum. The
longer the material stays in the large intestine, the more water is
absorbed, causing the feces to become firmer. Exercise and fiber
stimulate peristalsis, and water maintains consistency. Feces contain
cellulose and similar indigestible substances, sloughed epithelial cells
from the GI tract, digestive secretions, water, and microbes.
• Jelaskan proses pencernaan makanan ?
• Jelaskan maksud dr anabolisme, katabolisme, gluconeogenesis ?