Computer Basics

Computer Networking Overview

Mettu University
Engineering and Technology College
Electrical & Computer Eng. Department

Advanced
Computer Networking

Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)

Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Lecture One
Overview of Computer Networks

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 Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)
Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Outline
• Uses of Computer Networks
• Overview of Data Communications
• Network Protocols and Standards
• Network (Reference) Models
• Summary

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Introduction
• Old Paradigm – A single powerful computer serving all the needs of
an organization
• New Paradigm – Computer networks: a large number of separate
(autonomous) but internetworked (being able to exchange
information) computers doing the job [Distributed Processing – WWW…]
• Merging of computer and communications technologies – no
geographical barrier
• Connection – copper wire, fiber optics, microwaves, infrared,
communication satellites, … 1
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Uses of Computer Networks

A. Business Applications
• For resource sharing including programs, equipment, data
(mostly databases on central servers), …
• A communication medium – e-mail, writing a report together by
making changes on an online document
• Video-conferencing – to hold meetings by hearing and seeing
each other
• Electronic Business
• Business to business - placing orders, …
• Business with consumers, usually called e-commerce -
home shopping 2
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Computer Networking Overview

Uses of Computer Networks…

B. Home Applications
• Access to Remote information – newspapers, radio, on-line digital
libraries (ACM, IEEE, …), …
• Person-to-Person Communication
• E-mail (audio, video, pictures, …)
• Newsgroups (not in real time)
• Instant Messaging (between two people in real time, e.g., Yahoo
Messenger, Skype)
• Chat Room (for a group of people in real time)
• Using Internet to carry telephone calls, video phone, and
Internet radio 3
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Computer Networking Overview

Uses of Computer Networks…

B. Home Applications…
• Interactive Entertainment: video on demand, interactive
television, games (virtual reality – with photographic-quality
moving images)
• Electronic Commerce – with online manuals

C. Mobile Users
• Using mobile computers - Laptop (notebook), Palmtop (PDAs),
and handheld computers - and wireless networks in cars and
airplanes?? (Open issues till)
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications

• A data communication system has 5 components

1. Message: the information to be communicated (text, numbers, pictures,

sound, video - or combinations)
2. Sender: the device - computer, video camera, …
3. Receiver: still the device
4. Medium: the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver
5. Protocol: the set of rules that govern data communications; an agreement
between the communicating devices
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

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Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Direction of data flow can be
• Simplex: unidirectional, only one of the devices can transmit
• Half-duplex: both can transmit and receive, but not at the same
time
• Full-duplex: both can transmit and receive at the same time
• Network Criteria
• Performance: can be measured using transit time (amount of time required
for a message to travel) and response time (elapsed time between an inquiry
and the response)
• Reliability: measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
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recover from failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe
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• Security:
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Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Types of Connection
• Point-to-Point: provides a dedicated link between two devices

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Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Types of Connection…
• Multipoint: more than two devices share (spatially –
simultaneously – or temporally by taking turns) a single link

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Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)
• Refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form
a topology
• Four basic topologies are possible: Mesh, Star, Bus and
Ring

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Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Bus Topology
• Multipoint (one long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the
network)
• Advantages
• ease of installation; less cabling than star or mesh
• Disadvantages
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
(solution: limit the number and spacing of devices connected to a
given length of cable)
• Difficult reconnection (adding new devices) and fault isolation
• A fault in the bus cable stops all transmission 11
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Bus Topology…

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub
• Advantages
• Robust – a failure of a link has not effect on others
• Fault identification and isolation are easy
• Less expensive than mesh (but more expensive than others)
• Disadvantages
• Failure of the hub halts the system
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Star Topology…

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two
devices on either side of it
• A single is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination
• Each device incorporates a repeater (to regenerate bits received before
passing it)

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Ring Topology…
• Advantages
• Relatively easy to install and configure – adding or deleting a device
requires changing only two connections
• Fault isolation is simplified (if one device does not receive a signal
within a specified period, it can issue an alarm)
• Disadvantages
• A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Physical Topology (for LANs)…
• Mesh Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device
• Every device must have n-1 I/O ports, where n is the number of devices
connected
• Advantages
• No traffic problem (no congestion)
• Robust – a failure of a link has no effect on others
• Fault identification and isolation are easy
• Privacy or security (provided there is no wire tapping)
• Disadvantages
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• Amount of cabling and I/O ports needed (expensive) n(n-1)/2
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Network Categories: based on size, ownership, the distance it covers,
and its physical architecture
• Personal Area Network (PAN): meant for one person; e.g. a wireless network
connecting a computer with its mouse, keyboard and printer
• Local Area Network (LAN): usually privately owned and links devices in a single
office, building or campus
• User rates: 10 Mbps – 1 Gbps
• e.g., Ethernet, Token ring, Apple-talk
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): designed to extend over an entire city; it may
be a single network or interconnected LANs
• Wide Area Network (WAN): covering large geographic area; may utilize public,
leased, or private communications equipment
• 1980’s: 10 Kbps; 2000’s: 2.5 Gbps
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• User access rates: 56 Kbps - 155 Mbps
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• Network Categories…

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• The Internet
• When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet
• The most notable internet is called the Internet, a collaboration of
more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks
• It came into being in 1969 - by ARPA (Advanced Research Project
Agency) of DoD for researchers they funded to share findings
• It developed a packet-switched network, named as the ARPANET

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Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• The Internet…
• By the mid-seventies, a full suite of protocols, called TCP were
developed and proposed as the standard underlying technology for the
expanded use of the ARPANET system
• TCP was later split into two protocols: IP to handle datagram routing
and TCP to be responsible for higher-level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error correction; it was named as
TCP/IP and was adopted as the standard protocol suite in 1983

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• The Internet…
• Addressing used by ARPANET users became easier to handle in 1984
with the development of the Domain Name System (DNS); this service
took the responsibility of putting ARPANET numerical address into
readable text form and is still in use
• In the 1990s, an international consortium under the name of European
Center for Nuclear research (CERN) created the concept of web
pages and the WWW that allowed the exchange of data on the
Internet with ease

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Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• The Internet…
• ARCHIE (the first of many search engines) was introduced at
McGill University; followed by gopher (1991, University of
Michigan), VERONICA (1993, McGill); today we have such search
engines like AltaVista, Yahoo, Google, etc…
• HTML was developed in 1992; the first graphical web browser,
mosaic, was developed in 1993 by students at the national center for
super computing at the university of Illinois; today we have browsers
like Netscape (although it is dying against my wish) and Internet
Explorer 23
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• The Internet…
• The Internet today
• End users use the services of ISPs
• There are international ISPs that connect nations, regional, and
national ISPs
• NAP - Network Access Points connect backbone networks of IISPs

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Overview of Data Communications…

• The Internet… Old Figures
• The number of Internet hosts
advertised in the DNS rose from
1,313,000 in January 1993 to
233,101,481 in January 2004, an
average annual increase of 160%;
in the eleven-year period between
1993 and 2004, the absolute
increase in the number of Internet
hosts is 17,753%!
• The figure is 2015 is around 1
25
billion 28
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards

• A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated
• For instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the
first computer must perform the following general steps
• Break the data into small sections called packets
• Add addressing information to the packets identifying the source and
destination computers
• Deliver the data to the network interface card for transmission over
the network 26
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order
• Accept the data from the NIC
• Remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting
computer
• Reassemble the packets of data in to the original message

• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing

• Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data
• Semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits
• Timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be
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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Functions of Protocols
• Each device must perform the same steps the same way so that the
data will arrive and reassemble properly; if one device uses a
protocol with different steps, the two devices will not be able to
communicate with each other

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• The following are categories of functions that form the basis of
protocols
• Encapsulation
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection Control
• Addressing
• Multiplexing
• Transmission services)

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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Encapsulation
• The inclusion of control information to data is called encapsulation.
Each frame contains not only data but also control information
• Such control information falls into three categories: Address
(sender/receiver), Error-detecting code and Protocol control
(information about protocol functions)

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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Segmentation (by the sender also called fragmentation) and
reassembly (by the receiver)
• A block of data for transmission is of some bounded size
• At the application level, we refer to a logical unit of data transfer as
a message
• Lower level protocols may need to break the data up into blocks
of some bounded size
• This process is called segmentation

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Network Protocols and Standards…

• Segmentation …

• Reasons for Segmentation:

• The communication network may only accept blocks of data up
to a certain size
• Error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame size;
fewer bits need to be retransmitted when a frame gets
corrupted
• Facilitates more equitable access to shared transmission facilities
(for example, without maximum block size, one station could
monopolize a multipoint medium) 32
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Network Protocols and Standards…

• Segmentation …

• Disadvantages
• Since a frame contains certain amount of control information, the
smaller the block size, the greater the percentage overhead
• Frame arrivals may generate an interrupt that must be serviced; hence
smaller blocks result in more interrupts
• More time is spent processing smaller, more numerous frames
• The counterpart of segmentation is reassembly
• On receipt, the receiving device must reassemble the segmented data
into a message appropriate to the application 33
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Network Protocols and Standards…

• Connection Control

• Two Types of Protocols (Services)

• Connectionless Service
• The packets are sent from one party to another with no need
for connection establishment or connection release
• The packets are not numbered, they may be delayed, lost, or
arrive out of sequence; there is no acknowledgement either
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol), one of the transport layer
protocols, is connectionless
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Connection Control…

• Two Types of Protocols (Services)…

• Connection-oriented Service
• In connection-oriented data transfer, a logical association or
connection is established between the communicating computers
(devices)
• Long sustained session
• Orderly and timely delivery of packets, e.g., FTP

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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Connection Control…
• Two Types of Protocols (Services)…
• Connection-oriented Service…
• TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is connection-oriented
• Three phases are involved
• Connection establishment (agreement to exchange data)
• Data transfer (data and control information exchanged)
• Connection termination (termination request) - by any of the two parties
• The key characteristics of connection-oriented data transfer is that
sequencing is used
• Each side sequentially numbers the frames that it sends to the other side 36
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Connection Control…
• Two Types of Protocols (Services)…
• Connection-oriented Service…
• Because each side remembers that it is engaged in a logical
connection, it can keep track of both outgoing numbers, which
it generates, and incoming numbers which are generated by the
other side

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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Connection-oriented Service…
• Sequencing supports three main functions
• Ordered delivery: frames may not arrive in the order in which they were
sent, because they may traverse different paths
• Flow control: a receiving station has to limit the amount or rate of data
that is sent by a transmitting station
• The simplest form of flow control is stop-and-wait procedure in
which each frame must be acknowledged before the next can be sent
• More efficient protocols involve some form of credit provided to the
transmitter, which is the amount of frames that can be transmitted
without an acknowledgement; e.g. sliding window technique 38
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Connection-oriented Service…
• Sequencing supports three main functions…
• Error control: error control is implemented as two separate functions;
error detection and retransmission
• If an error is detected, the receiver discards the frame
• Upon failing to receive an acknowledgement to the frame in a
specified reasonable time, the sender retransmits the frame
• Some protocols also employ error correction which enables the
receiver not only to detect errors but, in some cases, to correct them
• We will study some details of flow control and error control again in the
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data link layer and in TCP
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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Addressing (Can be MAC – IP - PORT)
• A unique address is associated with each end-system in a
configuration (e.g. workstation, server) and each intermediate
system (e.g. router)
• An example is an IP address in TCP/IP connection, but addressing
spans more layers: data link, network, transport

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Computer Networking Overview

Network Protocols and Standards…

• Multiplexing
• Occurs when multiple connections share a single connection
(multiple access)

• Transmission Services

• A variety of additional services can be provided

• Priority: messages such as control messages may need to get through
to the destination station with minimum delay
• Security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be invoked
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Network Protocols and Standards…

• Protocols in a Layered Architecture
• Protocols that work together to provide a layer or layers of the model are
known as a protocol stack or suite, e.g. TCP/IP
• Each layer handles a different part of the communications process and has its
own protocol
• Data Communication Standards
• Standards are essential for interoperability
• Data communication standards fall into two categories:
• De facto standards: that have not been approved by an organized body;
mostly set by manufacturers
• De jure standards: those legislated by an officially recognized body such
as ISO, ITU, ANSI, IEEE 42
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Network (Reference) Models

• Consider an example of Sending a Letter

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Network (Reference) Models…

• Hierarchy
• There are three different activities at the sender side and another three
at the receiver’s side
• The tasks must be done in the order given in the hierarchy
• Layers and Services
• Within a single machine, each layer uses the services immediately
below it and provides services for the layer immediately above it
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer
x on another machine

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Network (Reference) Models…

• Why Layering?
• Reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)
• Standardizes interfaces (between layers)
• Facilitates modular engineering (different teams work on different
modules)
• Assures interoperable technology
• Accelerates evolution of networking technology
• Simplifies teaching and learning

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Network (Reference) Models…

• Two important network models or architectures
• The ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
• The TCP/IP Reference Model
• The OSI Reference Model
• It consists of 7 layers
• It was never fully implemented as a protocol stack, but a good
theoretical model
• Open – to connect open systems or systems that are open for
communication with other systems

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Network (Reference) Models…

• Principles to arrive at the 7 layers
• A layer should be created at different level of abstraction
• A layer should perform a well-defined function
• The function of each layer should be chosen towards defining
internationally standardized protocols
• Layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow
across the interfaces
• The number of layers should be optimal
• Large enough so that distinct functions should not be put together,
and
• Small enough so that the architecture does not become unwieldy 47
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Network (Reference) Models…

• The TCP/IP Reference Model
• TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
• Used by ARPANET and its successor the Internet
• Design Goals
• The ability to connect multiple networks (internetworking) in a
seamless way
• The network should be able to survive loss of subnet hardware,
i.e., the connection must remain intact as long as the source and
destination machines are properly functioning

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Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• The TCP/IP Reference Model…
• Flexible architecture to accommodate requirements of different
applications - ranging from transferring files to real-time speech
transmission
• These requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching
network based on a connection internetwork layer
• It has 4 (or 5 depending on how you see it) layers: Application,
Transport, Internet (Internetwork), Host-to-network (some
split it into Physical and Data Link)

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Network (Reference) Models…

• OSI and TCP/IP Layers Correspondence

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Network (Reference) Models…

• Physical Layer
• Responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next
• Design Issues:
• Mechanical: the size and shape of the network connector, how
many pins does the network connector has and what each pin
is used for
• Electrical: how many volts represent a 1 and how many a 0
• Timing: how many nanoseconds a bit lasts
• Whether communication is one way or in both directions
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simultaneously
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Network (Reference) Models…

• Physical Layer…

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Network (Reference) Models…

• Data Link Layer
• Makes the line appear free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer (flow and error control)
• This layer was not required if the underlying transmission media were
error free
• How?
• The sender breaks the input data into data frames and transmit them
sequentially (numbering them) by adding error detecting codes
• The receiver confirms correct receipt by sending back an
acknowledgement frame 53
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Network (Reference) Models…

• Network Layer (Internet Layer)
• Permits hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to their destination - possibly on a different network
• Allows heterogeneous networks to communicate - addressing, packet
size, protocol differences
• Arrival order of packets may not be respected - let higher layers do
the rearrangement if need be
• Similar to the snail mail system - an international mail from country
A to country B traveling through one or more international mail
gateways transparent to the user and other hidden rules such as
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stamps, preferred envelope size, delivery rules, …
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Network Layer (Internet Layer)…
• Decides how packets are routed from source to destination – three
mechanisms:
• Based on static tables,
• Can be determined at the start of each conversation,
• Can be highly dynamic by deciding a new route for each packet
• Controls Congestion
• TCP/IP defines an official packet format and protocol called IP for
delivering IP packets and routing

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 Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)
Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Transport Layer
• Accepts data from above, splits it up into smaller units if need be,
passes them to the network layer, and ensures that the pieces all arrive
correctly at the other end
• Allows peer entities on the source and destination machines to hold
conversations (end-to-end communication)
• In the case of the OSI model, determines types of services to provide
to the session layer
• Deliver messages in the order they were sent or without
guarantee of the order of delivery
• Broadcasting messages to multiple destinations 56
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 Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)
Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Transport Layer…
• In the TCP/IP model, two end-to-end transport protocols have been
defined
I. TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
• A reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte
stream to be delivered without error
• Handles flow control to make sure that a fast sender does
not swamp a slow receiver (It is slower than UDP)
• Recommended to Wired Communications
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Transport Layer…
II. UDP - User Datagram Protocol
• An unreliable, connectionless protocol
• For Applications:
• That do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and
wish to provide their own
• Where prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery, e.g., audio and video
• Recommended to Wireless Communication
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 Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)
Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Session Layer (OSI Model)
• Allows users to establish sessions between them
• Services include
• Dialog Control – keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
• Token Management – preventing two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time
• Synchronization – check-pointing long transmissions to allow them
to continue from where they were after a crash
• Provides access rights, billing functions, etc…
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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Presentation Layer (OSI Model)
• Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted
• Different data structures can be defined in an abstract way so
that it is possible for computers with different data
representations to communicate (Data Formats – NTFS – FAT –
EXT3…)

• Provides character code conversion, data encryption, data

compression 60
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 Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)
Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Application Layer
• It contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly needed by
users; examples are:
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) - For fetching pages on the
WWW
• TELNET - Virtual terminal, to log on to a remote machine
• FTP - File Transfer
• SMTP - E-Mail
• DNS - For mapping host names onto their network addresses
• … 61
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 Estifanos T. (MSc in Computer Networking)
Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Network (Reference) Models…

• Protocols and Networks in the TCP/IP Model Initially

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Summary
Host (upper) Layers

• Application (7): Network services to Applications

• Presentation (6): Data presentation to Applications
• Session (5): Managing sessions between Applications
• Transport (4): End-to-end connection and Reliability
• Network (3): Managing connections across the Network
• Data Link (2): Reliable data delivery across the Link
• Physical (1): Physical characteristics of the Media

Media (lower) Layers

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Computer Basics
Computer Networking Overview

Summary…
• Layers involved in various hosts (TCP/IP)
• When a message is sent from device A to device B, it may pass
through many intermediate nodes
• The intermediate nodes usually involve the first three layers

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Computer Networking Overview

End of Lecture One

Engineering
Estifanos and
T. (MSc Technology
in Computer College
Networking) Mettu
Lecture 2: University
Distributed Architectures 09/09/2022