EMT 4103 SENSORS AND

TRANSDUCERS ON 10 TH

JUNE 2020
1. Specifications of sensors and transducers.
2. Displacement, position & proximity sensors and transducers.
3. Pressure sensors and transducers.
Lesson expectations
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to
•Fully understand types, performance & selection of proximity,
displacement, position and pressure sensors and transducers.
•Apply these sensors and transducers in various control and automated
systems.
Sensor/transducers specifications
1. Range
The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range
of 25-225 °C.
2. Span
The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input.
Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.
3. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value
of the quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8
mm, when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.
Sensor/transducers specifications
4. Accuracy
•The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measurand.
•It is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full–scale
deflection.

5. Sensitivity
•Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a
sensor to the per unit change in input value that causes the output change.
For example, a general purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41
µV/°C.
 Sensor/transducers specifications
6. Nonlinearity
• The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of
the actual measured curve of a sensor from the ideal
curve.
• Figure shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship

Figure: Non-linearity error

 Sensor/transducers specifications
7. Hysteresis
• The hysteresis is defined as the maximum
difference in output at any measurement
value within the sensor’s specified range
when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing the
input parameter.
• The hysteresis error value is normally
specified as a positive or negative
percentage of the specified input range.
Figure: Hysteresis error curve
Sensor/transducers specifications
8. Resolution
•Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input
parameter that can be detected in the output signal.
•Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the full-scale
reading or in absolute terms.
•For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm
and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100
•then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2 mm.
Sensor/transducers specifications
9. Stability
•Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when
used to measure a constant input over a period of time.
•The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in output that occurs
over a period of time.
•It is expressed as the percentage of full range output.
Sensor/transducers specifications
10. Dead band/time
•The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input
values for which there is no output.
•The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.
Sensor/transducers specifications
11. Repeatability
•It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value. It is usually expressed as a
percentage of the full range output:
•Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 / full range
12. Response time
•Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-
wise change of the measurand.
•It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.
 Displacement, position and proximity
sensors
1. • Potentiometer
2. • Strain-gauged element
3. • Capacitive element
4. • Differential transformers
5. • Eddy current proximity sensors
6. • Inductive proximity switch
7. • Optical encoders
8. • Pneumatic sensors
9. • Proximity switches (magnetic)
10. • Hall effect sensors
Displacement, position and proximity sensors
• Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of
movement of an object.
• Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an
object in relation to some reference point.
• Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace
when an object has moved within particular critical distance of a
transducer.
1. Potentiometer Sensors
• Linear or angular displacement.
• Converts mechanical displacement into an
electrical signal.
• Has a resistive element and a sliding contact
(wiper).
• The slider moves along this conductive body,
acting as a movable electric contact.
The object of whose displacement is to be
measured is connected to the slider by using
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation
 1. Potentiometer Sensors
• A voltage Vs is applied across the resistive element. A
• voltage divider circuit is formed when slider comes into
contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured
as shown.
• The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of
the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter
displacement is calibrated against the output voltage VA.

As we know that R = ρ L / A, where ρ is electrical resistivity,

Figure Potentiometer: electric circuit
L is length of resistor and A is area of cross section
2. Strain Gauges

2. Strain Gauges
•The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction
of applied load to the original length of an element.
•The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can
say,
•∆R/R α ε;
•∆R/R = G ε where G= gauge factor/sensitivity factor.
•G is considered to be 2 to 4 and resistances are taken of the order of
100 Ω.
 Strain gauges and Wheatstone bridge

Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a

backing material plastic (ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced
epoxy.
3. Capacitive element based sensor
• Noncontact and for linear displacements.
• Comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor
and the lower pair another.
• The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate
separation changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
 Displacement measurement using
capacitive element sensor
Displacement measurement using
capacitive element sensor
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

• εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates,

ε0=permittivity of free space, A area of overlap between two plates
and d the plate separation.
• After displacement, capacitance changes as follows:
•o

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting

out-of balance Voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.
 4. Linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT)
Noncontact.
For measurement of linear
displacement.
It has three coils symmetrically spaced
along an insulated tube. The central coil
is primary coil and the other two are
secondary
coils. Secondary coils are connected in
series in such a way that their outputs
oppose each other. A magnetic core
attached to the element of which
displacement is to be monitored is
placed inside the insulated tube.
Figure: Working of LVDT sensor
LVDT
• Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating
electromagnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils.
• When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in
each of the secondary coil regions then the
• resultant voltage is zero.
• If magnetic core is displaced, resultant voltage increases in
proportion with the displacement.
Displacement, position and proximity
sensors
1. Eddy current proximity sensors
2. Inductive proximity switch
3. Optical encoders
4. Pneumatic Sensors
5. Proximity Switches
6. Hall effect sensor
1. Eddy current proximity sensors

To detect non-magnetic but conductive materials.

Comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit.
When an A.C. is passed through this coil, an alternative magnetic field is
generated.
If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents
are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
1. Eddy current proximity sensors
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts
the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude
of alternating current.
• This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of
change in current.
2. Inductive proximity switch

For detection of metallic objects.

Has 4 components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit.
An A.C. is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field.
When a metal object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the coil
changes. This is continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch
when a preset value of inductance change is occurred.
 3. Optical encoders
Optical encoders provide digital output as a result
of linear / angular displacement.
These are widely used in the Servo motors to
measure the rotation of shafts.
It comprises of a disc with three concentric
tracks of equally spaced holes.
Three light sensors are employed to detect the
light passing thru the holes. These sensors
produce electric pulses which give the
angular displacement of the mechanical
element e.g. shaft
on which the Optical encoder is mounted.
3. Optical encoders
• The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’
position of the disc.
• Holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by
one-half of the width of the hole. This provides the direction of
rotation to be determined.
• When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer
track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag
behind.
• The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc.
 4. Pneumatic Sensors
To measure the displacement
as well as to sense the
proximity of an object close to
it. The displacement and
proximity are transformed
into change in air pressure.

It comprises of three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A.
In absence of any obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces
the pressure in the port B.
However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure
in output port B.
This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch.
5. Proximity Switches
Are small electrical
switches which require
physical contact and a
small operating force to
close the contacts.
They are basically
employed on conveyor
systems to detect the
presence of an
item on the conveyor belt.
 Proximity Switches: Reed Switch

Magnet based Reed switches

are used as proximity
switches. When a magnet
attached to an object is
brought close to the switch, the
magnetic reeds attract each
other and close the switch
contacts.
LED based proximity sensors

Two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes to detect

the objects breaking the beam and reflecting light.