Sexual Reproduction in

Flowering Plants
Created by: Miss Henry 
Edited by: Miss Douglas
Objectives
• describe the structure of the anther and the formation of pollen grains;
• describe the structure of the ovule and the formation of the embryo
sac;
• explain the sequence of events from pollination to fertilization
(annotated diagrams rerquired);
• explain how cross fertilization is promoted;
• discuss the genetic consequences of sexual reproduction (self
fertilisation and cross fertilisation);
• discuss the development of the seed and the fruit from the embryo sac
and its contents, the ovule and the ovary;
Let’s build the foundation
Though sexual reproduction is plant is not a foreign topic, a lot of the terms that
you are used to will be replaced with more scientific names . Let’s do and overview
on plants at the CAPE level and learn some important terms before we proceed.
 All the plants on earth can be divided into
two main groups:
• Vascular plants:
- plants with well developed systems for transporting water and food.
- True root, stems and leaves
- Can be as small plants or large trees
• Non-vascular plants:
- plants that do not have a well developed system for transporting
water and food.
- No true roots, stem or leave.
- Very small in size- often time s close to the ground and water sources
Fruit and flower Naked seed
• All plants both vascular and
nonvascular have a diploid
sporophyte portion and a
haploid gametophyte portion:
- Sporophyte are the diploid
portions of plants which mature
and develop into gametophyte.
It is the non-sexual phase
- Gametophytes- haploid portions
of plants that produce the
gametes and zygotes from
which the sporophyte arise.
- It is the sexual phase
In nonvascular plants the gametophyte is more prominent than the
sporophyte while in vascular plants the sporophyte is more prominent
than the gametophyte.
Let’s learn some new words that
are synonymous with various
structures of a flower
• Spore, a reproductive cell capable of developing into a new individual.
• In the case of angiosperms a megasporangium (embryo sac- contains
a viable megaspore) fuses with a microsporangium (pollen grain-
contains viable microspore) during fertilization.
• Microspores are land plant spores that develops in male
gametophytes, whereas megaspores develop in the female
gametophytes. 
• megaspores are typically larger than microspores
All plants part take in alternation of generation,i.e- their life cycle
is an alternation between the sporophyte and gametophyte stage:
Simplified diagram in angiosperms
 Explanation of diagram
• The alternation of generations refers to the alternation between the diploid
sporophyte and the haploid gametophytes in plants.
• In angiosperms, meiosis occurs in floral structures of the larger, diploid sporophyte,
producing haploid microspores in the anthers and haploid megaspores in the ovaries.
• These microspores and megaspores divide by mitosis and form the haploid male and
female gametophytes, respectively.

• Pollination occurs when the male gametophyte, contained in a pollen grain, is

transferred to the stigma of a flower.
• Sperm travels to the female gametophyte, where fertilization (fusion of sperm and
egg) forms a diploid zygote.
• The zygote develops into an embryo and eventually an adult sporophyte.
• The cycle repeats, each time allowing for the production and development of new
individuals.
Note:
• Angiosperms- flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in a fruit
• Most Angiosperms are heterosexual meaning they have:
- Male gametophyte- contained in a pollen grains aka microgametophyte;
they contain a generative cell that develops into sperm.
- Female gametophyte- embryo sac aka megagametophyte
• Haploid megaspores develop into haploid female gametophytes, which
then produce eggs.
• Likewise, haploid microspores develop into male gametophytes, which
then produce sperm. Haploid gametes then join to form sporophytes.
Summary of the process:
• During pollination, a pollen grain is transferred from an anther to a
stigma.
• Once the pollen grain lands on a suitable stigma, it germinates and
forms a pollen tube, a structure that grows down through the style to
the ovary.
• Once in the pollen tube, the generative cell from the pollen grain
divides by mitosis, forming two sperm.
• The sperm travel down the pollen tube and are discharged into the
female gametophyte.
• In a process called double fertilization, one sperm fertilizes the egg,
forming the zygote; the other sperm fuses with two polar nuclei in the
female gametophyte, forming a triploid (3n) nucleus.
• The zygote develops into the plant embryo, and the triploid nucleus
divides and gives rise to the endosperm.
• The endosperm in a seed is not the embryo, but the food supply for
the embryo.
• Double fertilization prevents the waste of the plant's resources by
ensuring that the nutrient-rich endosperm only develops if the egg is
fertilized.
• After double fertilization, the ovule starts to develop into a seed
containing the plant embryo.
• As the embryo develops, the three tissue systems are established,
and the cotyledons (seed leaves) form.
• The seeds of many species dry out as they mature. These dry seeds lie
dormant until suitable germination conditions occur.
Sexual reproduction
• This is the production of offspring by the fusion of two gametes to
form a diploid zygote which eventually develops into a new individual.
• We refer to this fusion of gametes as fertilisation (1n + 1n= 2n).

• As known, sexual reproduction allows genetic variation as it combines

chromosomes from the female parent with chromosomes from the
male parent (genetic recombination).
 Sexual reproduction
• Gametes are usually of TWO types; the male gamete and the female gamete
(one type of gamete is only shown in some primitive organisms).
• These two types of gametes can be by separate male and female parents or
just by a single parent.
• When these gametes are produced by separate parents, that is, a male
producing male gametes and a female producing female gametes; we refer
to the organisms as unisexual. EG: humans
• When both male and female gametes are produced by one single parent, we
refer to the organism as bisexual or hermaphrodite. Examples include
tapeworms, earthworms, some fish, lizards and birds and most plants.
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
• Flowers belong to the phylum, Angispermophyta in the Kingdom Plantae.
This phylum is unique to the plant kingdom due to the ability of these plants
to produce flowers.

• The flower is one of the reproductive structures of a plant along with fruits
and seeds. In fact, we can think of the flower as a modified shoot bearing
highly specialised or modified leaves.
Basic structure of the flower
The flower • A pedicel is the stalk that attaches a
single flower to the rest of the plant.
• The receptacle (located at the top of the
pedicel) forms the base of the flower and
is the part of the flower from which the
flower parts arise.

• A cluster of flowers on the same stalk is

referred to as a inflorescence.
• The inflorescence is connected to the rest
of the plant by the peduncle.
Basic structure of the flower
• The flower has three major parts:
The perianth (sepals + petals)
The androecium (male
reproductive parts)
The gynoecium (female
reproductive parts)
Basic structure of the flower
The perianth consist of the outer protective
parts of the flower that consist of both the
sepal and petals.
• Calyx-collection of sepals
• Corolla-collection of petals

• The petals are the inner whorls and they are

referred to as the corolla. They are usually
large and brightly coloured. The colour, size
and scent of the petals normally are in
favour of its pollinators.
For example, insect-pollinated flowers are
normally larger and more brightly coloured.
Moth pollinated flowers are generally white in
colour so moths can easily find them at nights.
• Insect pollinated flower • Moth-pollinated flowers
Basic structure of the flower
• Sepals are generally green and leaf
like structures that serve to protect
the flower buds.
• Can also be brightly coloured.
• Group of sepals form the calyx.
 Basic structure of the flower
Androecium
• The androecium refers to male parts of a flower. It consist of the stamens and each
stamen consist of an anther and filament.
The filament contains a vascular bundle that carries water and nutrients to the
anther. The anther has two (2) lobes containing four (4) pollen sacs arranged in pairs.
Pollen is produced in pollen sacs.
Gynoecium (the carpel or pistil)
• The gynoecium refers to the female parts of the flower and consist of a collection of
carpel.
In fact, the carpel is the collection of female reproductive structures and consist of
the stigma, style and ovary. We can also refer to the carpel as the pistil.
The ovary is the swollen base of the carpel and it can contain one or several ovules. It is
these ovules that become seeds after fertilisation.
Basic structure of the flower
• The nectaries are glandular
structures that secrete a sugary
fluid called nectar.
• The nectar attracts pollinators
such birds, insects and even
bats.
 Basic structure of the flower
Recap:
Note the male and female productive • Flowers have three main parts; the
structures!!!!
perianth, androecium and
gynoecium.
Terms to note:
• Dioecious plants (same as unisexual
plants)- male and female organs
borne on separate plants
• Monoecious plants-separate male
and female flowers borne on the
same plant. Eg: hazelnut, oak, beech
 The development of pollen grain
• As known, each stamen consist of an
anther and a filament.
• The anther consist of four (4) pollen
sacs arranged in two (2) pairs. There
are two (2) lobes and each pair is in a
lobe.
They function to produce pollen.
• The filament consist of a vascular
bundle that supplies water and
nutrients to the pollen sacs.
Note the four (4) pollen sacs.
• The walls of the anther consist of
several fibrous layer, the inner most Each pollen sac is also called
layer being the tapetum. the microsporangium.
 The development of pollen grain

• The walls of the anther consist of

several fibrous layer, the inner most
layer being the tapetum (we’ll
discuss this more later).
Detailed development of the pollen grain
• Two separate processes result in the formation of pollen
grains. These are:
1. Microsporogenesis –the formation of microspores, also called
pollen grains.
2. Microgametogenesis- the development of the macrogametophyte
within the pollen grain.
 Detailed development of the pollen grain
Microsporogenesis (the formation of microspores within the microsporangia)
• In the development of pollen, the anther first consist of a uniform mass of
cells. These uniform cells develop into four (4) groups of fertile cells known as
sporogenous cells.
Each group of fertile cell is surrounded by several layers of sterile cells which
develop and form the wall of the tapetum. The tapetum supplies food and
nourishment to the developing pollen grains. The tapetum eventually becomes
the cell wall for the new pollen grain.
It is these same fertile/sporogenous cells that develop into pollen mother
cells, also known microspore mother cells.
• These pollen mother cells then divide by meiosis to give rise to four(4)
haploid single celled pollen grains known as microspores or immature pollen
grain. We refer to these four (4) pollen grains as a tetrad.
Detailed development of the pollen grain
Microgametogenesis (the formation of the pollen tube and generative nucleus)
• Each individual pollen within a tetrad then undergo microgametogenesis where they divide by
mitosis to form two (2) cells within the microspore wall.
• These two cells are the:
Small Generative nucleus
Large Tube cell

After this happens, the pollen grain is now mature and is ready to be released from the anther.
In fact, the shedding of pollen grain from the anther is known as dehiscence and occurs at specific
times depending on the type of plant.

Please note each pollen grain is surrounded by a protective, water-proof pollen wall known as the
exine that is made from a substance called sporopollenin.
It is this exine that allows pollen grains to remain unchanged and survive harsh conditions over a
long period of time.
 Pollen grain and fertilisation
• After the pollen grain lands on a
receptive stigma, the tube cell
starts to grow.
• It is the tube cell that actually
directs the growth of the pollen
tube down the style.
• The generative cell follows
behind the tube cell.
(We’ll talk more about this soon)
Images showing young and mature anther.
Pollen formation
Pollen formation
Pollen formation
Pollen formation

• Watch videos:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AykzPemLs7Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eXB-ykCNcg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gooIOjHRTj4
 The ovule
• As known, the carpel consist of a
stigma, style and ovary.
• Within the ovary, one or more
ovules may develop.
• Ovules are attached to the wall
of the ovary at a region called
the placenta by a short stalk
known as the funicle.
The ovule

• The main body of the ovule is

known as the nucellus.

• The nucellus/ovule is surrounded by

two protective sheaths called the
integuments.

• The integuments do not completely

surround the ovule but leave a small
hole called the micropyle.
 Development of the ovule to embryo sac
• Before we begin, it is important to understand that the ovule is also
referred to as a megaspore.
…………………….
• Inside the nucellus (body of ovule), at the pole nearest to the micropyle, a
diploid spore mother cell develops (the spore mother cell is also called the
megaspore mother cell, embryo sac mother cell or megasporocyte).
• The megaspore mother cell then undergoes meiosis giving rise to four (4)
haploid megaspores but only ONE of the megaspores develop.
The other three (3) disintegrates or die.
 Development of the ovule to embryo sac
• The nucleus of the surviving megaspore undergoes one round of mitosis to
produce two (2) nuclei.

• These two (2) nuclei then undergoes a 2nd round of mitosis giving rise to four (4)
nuclei.

• These four (4) nuclei then undergoes a 3rd round of mitosis giving rise to eight
(8) nuclei.

• Cytokinesis does NOT occur and so it is important to note that there are now
eight (8) nuclei in one single cell.
Development of the ovule to embryo sac
Development of the ovule to embryo sac
 Development of the ovule to embryo sac
• These eight nuclei then arrange themselves in 2 groups of four in the haploid
megaspore which is now known as the embryo sac.
• Four nuclei travel to the micropyle end (one group)

• The other four travel to the opposite end (one group)

• Then, one (1) nucleus from each group migrate to the center of the embryo sac.
These two (2) nuclei are now known as the polar nuclei.

• A cell membrane then forms around the polar nuclei giving rise to the central
cell.
Development of the ovule to embryo sac
• Next, the three (nuclei at the micropyle end
become 1 egg cell and two (2) cells known as
the synergids.
The synergids are just short-lived cells within the
ovule.

• The three (3) nuclei at the opposite pole

becomes three (3) cells called the antipodal
cells.

Now, the mature embryo comprises of eight (8)

nuclei in seven (7) cells.

Note the end opposite the micropylar end is

known as the chalazal end.
 Double Fertilisation
• After the formation of pollen grains, the cells in the walls of the anther
begin to dry and shrink allowing tension to build up in the anther’s walls.
This tension leads to the splitting of the anther down the sides along two
lines which releases the pollen. This release or shedding of pollen is
known as dehiscence.
• When pollen falls on on a stigma of a receptive or compatible species, it
will take up water and begin to germinate.
A sucrose solution is secreted by the epidermal cells of the stigma and
this is what stimulates the pollen’s germination.
A pollen tube emerges from one of the pits/pores of the pollen and
begins to grow rapidly down the style to the ovary.
Double Fertilisation
• This pollen tube growth is
controlled by the tube
nucleus of the pollen
grain as well as stimulated
by auxins produced by the
gynoecium.

• The pollen tube is

directed towards the
ovary by certain chemicals
(chemotropism).
Double Fertilisation
• During the pollen tube’s growth, the generative nucleus of the pollen
divide by mitosis to produceTWO (2) male nuclei which are the male
gametes or sperm cells.

• These sperms are unable to swim like some plants and human sperm.
Therefore, they depend on the pollen tube to reach the female
gamete in the embro sac.

• The pollen tube enters the ovary through the micropyle after which th
tube nucleus degenerates and the pollen tube’s tip burst releasing the
male gametes.
Double Fertilisation
• One male gamete or nucleus fuses with the female gamete or egg cell
forming a diploid zygote.
• The other fuses with the diploid nucleus/central cell to form a triploid
cell known as the primary endosperm cell or nucleus.
It is this endosperm that becomes the food store in many seeds.
• This double fertilisation process is unique to flowering plants and it
results to their seeds containing two main structures; the embryo and
the endosperm (food store).

• Please note for ovaries containing multiple ovules, each ovule has to
be fertilized by their own pollen grain to form a seed.
Double Fertilisation
 The development of the seed and fruit
• As soon as the ovule is fertilised, it becomes known as the seed and the
ovary becomes known as the fruit.
• Remember, fertilised ovule= seed, ovary= fruit

• In other terms, a fruit is a matured ovary. That is, the ovary walls (pericarp)
and its other structures develop into the fruit
• Also, there are many changes that accompany this process.

• Let’s discuss
SEEDS
(FERTILIZE
D OVULE)
Most dicots are non-endospermic
Endospermic (albuminous)
Non-endospermic (non- albuminous)
PARTS OF A SEED (DICOT)
The development of the seed and fruit
CASTOR SEED- ENDOSPERMIC DICOT
 The development of the seed and fruit
• As we know, there are many developmental changes that take place in seed fruit and seed
development.
1. Once the ovule is fertilised, it is now known as the zygote. It is this zygote that will
develop into the seed.
This zygote undergoes a series of mitotic divisions which allows it to grow and become a
multicellular embryo.
This multicellular embryo consists of:
 Plumule- this is the first shoot of the plant. It consist of a stem, 1st pair of foliage leaves
and a terminal bud.
 Radicle- the first root.
 One or two cotyledons- the seed-leaves (monocots have one (1) cotyledon and
dicotyledons have two (2) cotyledons). Cotyledons may become swollen with food to act
as storage tissue such as those found in beans and peas.
 Hypocotyl- this connects the epicotyl and the radicle.
 The development of the seed and fruit
2. The triploid endosperm also undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to form the
endosperm. Therefore, we can define the endosperm as a mass of triploid nuclei
separated from each other by a thin cell wall. For some seeds, this mass of
endosperm remains as the food store, for example; corn.

3. In some seeds, only the cotyledons serve as the food store instead of the
endosperm. In this case, the endosperm may disappear altogether as it would no
longer serve a function. However, some seeds may utilise both the cotyledons and
the endosperm for food storage.

4. The embryo continues to develop and grow and so does its food store. The
nucellus down supplying nutrients for growth. Further growth is supported by
nutrients from the vascular bundle in the funicle/ stalk of the ovary. (Please
remember that this funicle is the stalk that connects the ovule to wall of the ovary.)
The development of the seed and fruit
5. The integument of the ovule eventually develops and
becomes the testa or seed coat which serves as thin but
protective layer.
6. The micropyle does not change but still remains open to
allow the intake of water and oxygen that is needed for the
seed to germinate.
7. In the final stages of the seed’s development, water
content is reduced from about 90% (plants’ normal water
content) to 10-15% in an effort to minimize metabolic
activities. This step is important in achieving seed dormancy.
8. As the seed develops, the ovary becomes a mature fruit
and its walls become the pericarp of the fruit. The fruit
normally serves a protective function of the seed. It may
also serve as a means of seed dispersal.
9. The remaining flower parts whither away and are lost.
The development of the seed and fruit
Basic structure of the fruit
Advantages and disadvantages of reproduction by
seed
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

The seed protects the embryo Seeds are relatively large structures because of the extensive
food reserves. This makes dispersal more difficult than by
spores.

The seed contains food for the embryo (either in the Seed are oftentimes eaten by animals for their food reserves
cotyledon or the endosperm or both)

The seed is usually adapted for dispersal There is a reliance on wind, insect and water for pollination
which make fertilisation more dependent on chance.

The seed can remain dormant and survive adverse Two individuals are required in dioecious species, making the
conditions process more dependent on chance than reproduction in
monoecious species. However dioecious species are
relatively rare.

The seed is physiologically sensitive to favourable conditions

 Pollination
• Pollination can be defined as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the flowering plant.

• Pollination may lead to fertilisation but it is NOT fertilisation. However,

pollination is important as it allows the pollen to reach the stigma of the
plant.
• Pollination can be either ‘cross-pollination’ or ‘self-pollination.’
• Cross Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to the
stigma of another plant.
• Self pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to the stigma of the
same flower.
 Pollination
Cross-Pollination
• Most flowering plants actually cross-pollinate. This is why most flowering plants
have big, bright petals and nectar to attract insects and animals and so increase the
chances of cross-pollination.
Cross-pollinating plants may also utilise wind and water to transfer pollen to
different plants.

Self-pollination
• Some flowering plants can self pollinate and this may lead to inbreeding which
results in less vigourous offspring. In inbreeding, there is a high frequency in rare
and recessive traits. That is, vigour and fertilility decreases as inbreeding increases.
Self-pollinating plants generally have small, inconspicuous flowers in comparison
to cross-pollinating flowers as they do not necessarily have to attract pollinators such
as animals and insects. Hence, it is not dependent on external factors and so is more
reliable that cross-pollination. Therefore, it is useful for plants that live in harsh
environments with little insects as well as those separated by large distances.
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination and cross-fertilisation
• Of course, cross-pollination will lead to cross-fertilisation. This means that
when fertilisation occurs between two individuals, it is cross-fertilisation.
Cross-fertilisation does however increase the genetic variation and is a
form of outbreeding.
There are special mechanisms that does increase the chances of cross-
pollination/ cross-fertilisation. We will discuss these mechanisms very soon

Self-pollination and self fertilisation

• Of course, self-pollination will lead to self-fertilisation. This means that
when fertilisation occurs in one individual and it fertilises itself, it is called
self-fertilisation.
In truth, they both have their own disadvantages and advantages
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination/cross-fertilisation and Self-pollination and self fertilisation
Cross fertilisation/cross-pollination Self-pollination/self fertilisation

• Form of outbreeding • Extreme form of inbreeding (can result

• Increases genetic variation in less vigorous offspring. Pg 916)
• Wasteful for pollen • Decreases genetic variation
• Dependent on external factors and so it • Not so wasteful
is less reliable • Tend to be used for species that are
• Examples include groundsel and uncommon or are separated by large
chickweed distances or those that live in harsh
climate
• Reliable as it is not dependent on
external factors
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination/cross-fertilisation
There are many mechanisms that encourage or favour cross-pollination and
cross-fertilisation.
It is important that you know and understand these mechanisms. These
mechanisms include:
• Dioecious and monoecious plants.
Self-pollination in dioceious plants would be impossible as these plants
have separate male and female plants.
Monoecious plants –the separation of male and female flowers on
monoecious plants on the same hermaphrodite plant also encourages cross-
fertilisation even though self-fertilisation may also occur.
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination/cross-fertilisation
Mechanisms that encourage or favour cross-pollination (cont’d)
• Protandry and protogyny
- When anthers mature first, we refer to this as protandry.
- When stigmas mature first, we refer to this as protogyny.
- This somehow decrease the chances of self-fertilisation as seen in
protandrous flowers such as white deadnettle, sage and dandelion.
However, protandrous and protogyny tend to have an overlapping period
where self-fertilisation may occur in the case that cross-fertilisation was
not successful.
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination/cross-fertilisation
Mechanisms that encourage or favour cross-pollination (cont’d)
• Self-incompatibility (self-sterility)
Self-incompatibility is a mechanism that eliminates self-fertilisation as it
disables bisexual plants from prodcing zygotes with its own pollen.
In the case where self-pollination occurs, the pollen grain may not develop
and if it does, it develops slowly. This prevents or reduces the chances of self
fertilisation. Therefore, the pollen penetration of the stigma as well as growth
of the pollen tube is inhibited due to the presence of some self-incompatibility
genes.
That is, it is genetically controlled by multiple alleles of the the self-
incompatibility gene, S. This means that if a polln grain has the same ‘S’ allele
as the stigma on which it falls, fertilisation will not be successful.
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination/cross-fertilisation
Mechanisms that encourage or favour cross-pollination (cont’d)
• Special floral structures and arrangement
There are special floral arrangement that favour cross-pollination.
In insect pollinated flowers, the stigma is usually borne above the anthers
which consequently removes the chances of pollen falling onto the stigma of
the same flower. This means it is more likely for an insect carrying pollen from
another plant to touch the stigma first as it enters the flower. Later, when the
insect is seeking nectar, pollen may be brushed against it or falls off before it
leaves the flower.
In the case of wind-pollinated flowers, the inflorescence and the entire
flowers may hang downward so that if pollen falls, it drops clear of the plant
before being blown away. Eg : hazel catkins
Stigma above anther Flower hangs downward
 Pollination and fertilisation
Cross-Pollination/cross-fertilisation
Mechanisms that encourage or favour cross-pollination (cont’d)
• Hazel catkins
 Pollination
• So we already know what pollination is but let’s define it again.
Pollination is simply the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the flowering plant.

• However, how does pollen get transferred from the anther to the
stigma when plants are in fact stationary? The answer is simply
pollinators as well as agents such as wind and water.

• We’ll just briefly discuss wind and animals as means by which

plants achieve pollination.
 Pollination
Wind
• Wind pollinated plants of course depend on the wind to get pollen from the anther to the
stigma. However, this agent of dispersal is quite inefficient as it relies solely on chance for
the pollen to meet the stigma of a plant.

• Therefore, wind-pollinated plants have to possess certain adaptations to ensure the

likelihood of wind pollination. This also means they will have certain differences when
compared to the animal/insect pollinated flowers.

• These differences include the fact that wind-pollinated flowers have no nectar, smaller
and less colourful (dull) petals and no perfume as they do not need to attract insects or
animals.
• It is important to note that wind pollination is not so reliable and tends to be so
successful where large numbers of the same species grow together.
 Pollination
Wind
Adaptations of wind-pollinated plants include the fact that:

1. Stamens are usually exposed with the anther suspended from long filaments that
hang on the flowers. This position of the anther allows pollen to be easily
intercepted by the wind.
2. The carpel of the flowers tend to have large, sticky or net-like stigma to efficiently
trap airborne pollen.
3. Ovaries tend to have single ovules and so produce single-seeded fruits.
4. Pollen grains of the wind-pollinated flowers tend to be light, small and have a
smooth surface. This allows pollen to float easily in the wind. Those pollen grains
that are large tend to have hollow spaces with air so they can float easily. Eg: corn
 Pollination
(Adaptations of wind-pollinated plants)
 Pollination
Animal/ Insect Pollination
• Unlike wind pollination, animal pollination is very efficient. This is because the
insect is a much more precise agent of pollination as it can carry a small amount
of pollen from the anther of one flower and deposit it precisely on the stigma of
another flower.

• This transfer of pollen by insects from plant to plant also encourages cross-
pollination and consequently, cross-fertilization. This is a big advantage of
animal pollination as it encourages outbreeding and hence, genetic variation.

• To achieve insect-pollination, it must mean that the flower of the insect

pollinated plant would have to possess certain adaptations to ensure it can
successfully attract insects and animals.
 Pollination
Animal/ Insect Pollination
Adaptations of insect/animal pollinated flowers include:
• Large, bright colourful flowers depending on the type of insect. For example,
moth-pollinated flowers are white to be easily detected in the nights.
• Flowers may also have nectar guides that lead them to the nectary. For
example; bee pollinated flowers may have patterns that reflect or absorb
ultraviolet light.
• The position or arrangement of the corolla may even form a landing platform
that leads insects to the nectary and pollen. The landing platforms allow the
bees to move in certain ways that ensure they collect pollen as they feed on
the nectar before leaving the plant. Importantly, the bees have tiny hairs on its
body’s surface that allow pollen to become trapped on its body.
 Pollination
Animal/ Insect Pollination
Adaptations of insect/animal pollinated flowers include:
• Some flowers may even have a long corolla tube known as a spur that
facilitates the long-sucking mouthparts of moths and butterflies.
• Some flowers have certain smells that affect different types of insects. Carrion
bees are attracted to flowers that have a pungent smell like rotting flesh.
• Some flowers may even impersonate some insects. For example; the flower of
certain orchids look similar to the female wasp as well as even smell like it. This
encourages male wasp to visit the flower believing that they are copulating
with an actual female wasp.
Pollination (Animal/ Insect Pollination)

• Orchid flower that looks like a • Butterfly with its long mouth
female wasp. parts.
Pollination
 Genetic consequences of sexual reproduction
As known, sexual reproduction increases the genetic variation in living
organisms. However, the extent of this variation is dependent on if organisms
breed with closely related organisms (inbreeding) or if they breed with
organisms they are not closely related with (outbreeding).
 Genetic consequences of sexual reproduction in self-fertilisation/selfing
• As we already now, selfing reduces genetic variation as most of the offspring possess
similar traits. This means that these similar individuals can all be wiped out by a disease.
• Similar offspring are also more susceptible to environmental changes.
 Genetic consequences of sexual reproduction in cross-fertilisation
• Genetic diversity is increased which means that there is a greater variation of traits.
Some plants may even have disease-resistance genes and so be able to survive
outbreaks. This means not all the population of a species may be wiped out.
• Plants with a high level of genetic diversity can also adapt to changes in environmental
conditions which consequently increases the survival rate of a species.