Department Of Agro Ecology

Lecture Note On:-

Applied Crop Production Stream

Weeds and their management

Compiled By: Getachew Asamenew
 Course Objectives & Competences to be
Acquired:
Upon the completion of this course, students are able to:
• Know the biology, ecology and identifying the features of weeds
• Know weed -crop competition
• Know principles and practices of weed management
• Know the emphasis given to problems of weeds in Ethiopia
• Be well equipped with the theoretical and practical knowledge and skills
in weed management in different agro ecosystems within the country.
• http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=12011

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Chapter 1. Introduction
1.Definitions
2.Harmful effects and benefits of weed
3.Losses caused by weeds
 Chapter 2. Weed biology and ecology
2.1. Characteristics of weeds
2.2. Classification of weeds
2.3. Biology of weeds – propagation,
dispersal and persistence, factors
affecting distribution
2.4. Weed Ecology
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Chapter 3.Competition
 
3.1. Weed crop Competition
3.2. Weed –crop interference
3.4. Threshold of competition
3.5. Critical period of weed competition
3.6. Soil, climate, weed and crop density effect

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Chapter 4. Principles and practices of
weed management
 
4.1. History of weed control
4.2. Prevention, control and eradication
4.3. Elements of weed control –
Physical, ecological, biological,
chemical and integrated weed
management.

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Chapter 5. Herbicides
 
5.1. History
5.2. Diversity
5.3. Classes
5.4. Formulations and toxicity
5.5. Application
5.6. Types of treatments
5.7. Drifts
5.8. Adjuvants
5.9. Combination and rotations
5.10. Bioherbicides
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 Chapter 6.
Management of major parasitic and invasive weeds of Ethiopia

Invasive Weeds Parasitic weeds

• Partinium • Striga
• Lantana • Orobancha
• Mesquites • Dodder
• Acacia
• Water hyacinth

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 Evaluation and assessment
 
Practical activity (field & lab practice)........................... 10%
Quiz…………………………..............LN + EV + D 10 %
Assignment.......................................................................10 %
Mid – semester LN + PM + EV + D..………………….30%
Final exam LN + HO + EV +D……………………….40%

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
Definitions
There are numerous definitions of a weed, including:
• A plant out of place and not
intentionally sown
• A plant growing where it is not wanted
• A plant whose virtues have not yet
been discovered.
• Plants that are competitive, persistent,
pernicious, and interfere negatively
with human activity and many others.
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 Harmful effects and benefits of weed
Negative/harmful effects of weed:
• Weeds compete with the crop plant for
light, nutrients, water, space and other
growth requirements and reduce the
crop yield.
• Increase the cost of production by
increasing the cost of labour.
• Reduce the quality of crop products.

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 Thumbai or Thumba.
BENEFITS OF WEEDS
• Weeds when ploughing under, add nutrients,
organic matter.
• Weeds check winds or water erosion by soil binding
effect of their roots.
• Useful as fodder for cattles & as vegetable for
human beings.
• Have medicinal value, Thumbai or Thumba ( Leucas
aspera) is used against snake bite, oil of satyanashi satyanashi
seed is useful against skin diseases, nuts of lavala
are used in making scents (Incense sticks).
• Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing
conditions in a field, for example of water levels, lavala
compaction and pH.
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 Cont.
• Have economic importance
e.g.: saccharum spp used for making
thatches.
• Reclamation of alkali lands (Satyanashi).
• Serve as ornamental plants (Ghaneri).
• Used for fencing (Cactus, Nagphana).
• Used as mulch to check the evaporation
losses of water from the soil. satyanashi
• Used as green manuring & composting.
• Fix atmospheric ‘N’ (Blue-green algae, Ghaneri or Lantana
Tarota, Unhali, etc.)

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 Serve as ornamental plants (Ghaneri).

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 Losses caused by weeds
 

1. Reduction in crop yield: Weeds compete for water, nutrients & light.
Being hardy & vigorous in growth habit, they soon outgrow the crops &
consume large amounts of water & nutrients, thus causing heavy losses
in yield. E.g.: 40% reduction in yield of groundnut & 66% reduction in
yield of chilli. The loss of N through weeds is about 150 kg/ha.
2. Increase in the cost of cultivation: One of the objects of tillage is to
control weed on which 30% expenditure is incurred and this may
increase more in heavy infested areas & also cost on weed control by
weeding or chemical control. Hence, reduce the margin of net profit.
3. The quality of field produce is reduced: Weed seeds get harvested &
thrashed along the crop produce which lowers the quality. Such produce
fetches fewer prices in the market. E.g.: Leafy vegetables, grain crop.

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 Cont.
4.Reduction in quality of livestock produce: Weeds impart an undesirable flavour
to the milk (Ghaneri), impair quality of wool of sheep (Gokhuru, Aghada), and
cause the death of animals due to poisonous nature of seed (Dhatura).
5. Harbour insect-pests & disease pathogens: Weeds either give shelter to various
insect pests & disease pathogens or serve as alternate hosts & thus helps in
perpetuating the menace from pests & diseases. E.g.: Gall fly of paddy, midge fly
of Jowar, leaf minor of soybean & Groundnut, rust of Wheat, tikka of Groundnut,
Black rust of wheat.
6. Check the flow of water in irrigation channels: Weeds block drainage & check
the flow of water in irrigation canals & field channels thereby increasing the
seepage losses as well as losses through over through over flowing, so reduce the
irrigation efficiency.

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 Cont.

7. Secretions are harmful: the Heavy growth of certain weeds like

quack grass (Agropyon repens) or lavala lowers the germination &
reduce the growth of many crop plants due to the presence of certain
phytotoxins secreted by weeds.
8. Harmful to human beings and animals: Weeds cause irritation of
skin allergy & poisoning to human beings, also the death of castles.
9. Cause quicker wear & tear of farm implements: Being hardy & deep
rooted; the tillage implements get worn out early & cannot work
efficiently unless they are properly sharpened or mended.
10. Reduce the value of the lands: Heavily infested lands with
perennial weeds fetch less price as require heavy expenditure to
brought under cultivation.
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 Chapter 2.
Weed biology and ecology
2.1. Characteristics of weeds

• Weeds posses one or more of the following:

A) abundant seed production;
B) rapid population establishment;
C) seed dormancy;
D) long-term survival of buried seed;
E) adaptation for spread;
F) presence of vegetative reproductive structures; and
G) ability to occupy sites disturbed by human activities.

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 CAUSES OF WEED
The main cause of weed problem in the cropped areas is due to the presence of
following characteristics in them:
• Reproduce in many ways; sexual (seed) and asexual (parts of the plant re-sprout) 
• Produce many seeds 
• Produce small seeds 
• The seeds have fancy ways of getting carried around(float on air or water, stick to animals,
many others) 
• If you try to pull them they break off and re-sprout 
• Roots or stems from rhizomes or runners 
• They are hardy “generalists” and can live almost anywhere 
• They grow fast (compared to crop plants) 
• Their seeds may stay dormant in the soil for long periods
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 Weeds are also successful in giving competition to crop plants due
to:
• No special environmental requirements for germination
• Self-controlled, discontinuous germination and great longevity of seed
• Only a short time spent in vegetative period before beginning to flower
• Continuous seed production maintained for as long as growing conditions permit
• Self-compatible, but not obligatorily self-pollinated or apomictic
• Cross pollination may be achieved by a nonspecialized flower visitor or by wind
• Very high seed output in favorable environmental circumstances
• Production of some seed in a wide range or environmental circumstances; high tolerance
or and often plasticity in face of climatic and edaphic variation
• Special adaptations for short- and long-distance dispersal
• Specialized features for competition, ex. Rosette formation, etc.
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 Classification of Weeds
• There are over 30,000 species of weeds around the world.
• Out of these about 18,000 are known to cause serious losses.
• In the list of world’s worst weeds nut grass or sedge (Cyperus
rotundus) ranks first and hariali (Cynodon dactylon) second
position.
• The weeds with similar morphological characters, life cycle,
requirements of soil , water, climatic condition etc are
grouped together as a class or category.
• Therefore classification of weeds is helpful for adopting weed
management methods for particular group of weeds instead
of against an individual weed species.
• It is always economical and practically feasible to manage the
group of weeds as compared to manage the individual weed
species.
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HARIALI
21
 I) Classification of Weeds According to Life Cycle:
• Depending upon their life cycle weeds can be
classified as
• 1) Annual Weeds:
• They complete their life cycle within one year
or one season.
• a) Kharif Annuals / Kharif Weeds:
• They appear with the onset of monsoon (June,
July) and complete their life cycle when rainy
season is over (Oct or Nov) E.g Cock’s comb,
dudhi, math, chimanchara , parthenium etc.

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 Cont.

• b) Rabi Annuals / Rabi Weeds:

• They complete their life cycle during winter season ( Oct/Nov to Feb)
E.g Vasanvel ( Chenopodium album) , Ghol ( Portulaca oleracea), wild
oat etc.
• c) Summer Annuals / Summer Weeds:
• They complete their life cycle during summer season ( Feb to May),
Majority of the Kharif seaosn weeds grow during summer season in
irrigated farming E. g Parthenium , Amaranthus spp. Euphorbia Spp. (
Dudhi) etc.
• d) Ephemerals:
• The short- lived annual weeds are called ephemerals E. g Niruri
( Phyllanthus niruri).
• These weed completes its life cycle within a very short period of 2 to
4 weeks.
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 Cont.
• 2) Biennial Weeds:
• They take at least two years or two seasons to complete their life
cycle.
• They complete their vegetative growth in first year or season and
produce flowers and seeds in the next year or season. E.g Wild carrot-
( Daucas carota), wild onion – ( Asphodelus spp) , Jangli gobhi-
(Launea spp).
• 3) Perennial Weeds:
• They continue or grow for more than two years or several years.
Perennial weeds are further classified as.

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 II) According to Root System:
• Depending upon the depth of root system perennial weeds are classified
as
• a) Shallow Rooted Perennials:
• Those perennial weeds having about 20 to 30 cm deep root system are
called shallow rooted perennial weeds.
• E. g Hariali ( Cynodon dactylon), Quack grass ( Agrophyron repens).
• b) Deep Rooted Perennials:
• Weeds having about one meter or more deeproot system. E.g Nutgrass
( Cyperus rotundus), Johnson grass ( Sorghum holepense ), Acacia spp.
wild ber etc.   
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 III) According to Mode of Reproduction:
• a) Simple Perennials: Reproduce mostly by seeds.
• E. g Ghaneri- Lantana camara)  Acacia- ( Acacia spp),
Wild Ber- ( Zizyphus spp).
• b) Bulbous Perennials:
• Propagate by underground parts like bulbs, rhizomes , tubers etc, as
well as seeds.
• E .g Cattail ( Pan kanis) (Typha spp),
Nut grass or Nut sedge ( Cyperus rotundus),
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense).
• c) Creeping Perennials:
• Spread by lateral extension of the creeping above ground stem or roots
or by seeds.
E .g Hariali
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– (Cynodon dactylon), Ambooshi – ( Oxalis litifolia)
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 IV) According to the Place of Occurrence (Habitat):

• Depending upon the place of their occurrence they can be grouped as

under:
1) Weeds of cropped lands: E. g Chandvel, Striga, Orobanche, Wild
rice etc.
2) Weeds of Pastures and grazing lands: E. g Parthenium, Hulhul
(Cleome viscose).
3) Weeds along water channel: E .g Jalkumbhi ( Eichhornia crassipes)
Pandhari Phuli ( Lagasca mollis).

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 V) According to Nature of Stem:

• 1) Woody Weeds:
•  These are the woody and semi-woody and semi-woody rough stem
shrubs and are collectively called brush weeds, E .g Acacia wild ber,
Ghaneri (Lantana Camara) etc.
• 2) Herbaceous Weeds:
• These weeds have green and succulent stem and common accurence
on farm lands. E.g  Math, Cocks, Comb, Dudhi, Parthenium etc.

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 VI) According to the Origin of Weeds:
1) Introduced or Exotic weeds/ Allien Weeds or Anthrophytes

• Many weeds move from the place of their origin by seeds or other parts
to a new area and establish there and become introduces weeds such
introduced weeds are called alien weeds or anthrophyes.
1. Parthenium hysterophorus –From U.S.A
2. Solanum elaegnifolium- With food grain.
3. Lantana camera ( Ghaneri) : From Shri-Lanka by birds.
4. Cockleber / Gokhru (Xanthium strumarium) : Native of America.
5. Orobanche spp. ( Bambakhu)- Europe.
6. Nutgrass ( Cyperus rotundus) chandvel: Eurasia.
7. Water hyacinth – Tropical America ( Introduced in India by Portuguese)
8. Johnson grass- Asia and southern Europe.
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 2) Indigenous Weeds:
• Origin of majority of tropical weeds is India E .g Cock’s comb, Dudhi, Aghada, Hariali etc.
VII) Facultative Weeds or Apophytes:
• Weeds which grow primarily in undistributed or close communities but may some times
escape to the cultivated fields, It is also called Apophytes E .g Cactus.
VIII) Obligate Weeds:
• Weeds which grow or occur primarily in cultivated field where the land is distributed
frequently. E.g Chandvel ( Convolvulus arvensis).
IX) Noxious Weeds:

The weeds which are undesirable , troublesome and difficult to control are called noxious
weeds E.g Nutgrass, Hariali, Parthenium , Striga, Orobanche, Water hyacinth etc.

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 X) Objectionable Weeds:
• Weeds which produce seeds that are difficult to separate once mixed
with crop seeds are called objectionable weeds. E. g The mixture of
Argemone Mexicana (Pivala Dhotra) seeds in mustard. Wild onion in
cultivated onion.
XI) Industrials Weeds:
• Weeds invading areas around buildings, highway, railway lines, fence
rows, electric and telephone pole bases etc are called industrial weeds.
E .g Parthenium, Reshimkata, Katemath, etc.
XII) Poisonous Weeds:
• E.g. Parthenium, Datura, Poison, ivy ( Rhus sp), etc.
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 Weed biology
• Weed biology is the study of the establishment,
growth, reproduction, and life cycles of weed
 species and weed societies/vegetation. 
• Weed biology is an integrated science with the
aim of minimizing the negative effects, as well
as using and developing the positive effects, of
weeds.

1. Life Cycle - Based on life cycle weeds are

classified as annuals, biennials and perennials.

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 Cont.

2. Reproductive Strategy – Based on reproductive strategy weeds are classified

as seed, vegetative reproduction.
Reproduction by seed
• Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction.
• It requires the fertilization of an egg by sperm, usually in the form of pollen.
• Pollination of the egg in a flower results in formation of seed that is capable of
producing a new plant.
• Seed production varies greatly among and within weed species in part due to
environmental variability between years, competition from neighboring
plants, and genetic variability.

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 Canada thistle
PROPAGATION
• Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the
number of plants of the same species and at the same time
perpetuating their desirable characteristics.
• There are two general methods of plant propagation: sexual
and asexual propagation.
Reproduction by seed
• Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction.
• It requires pollination and fertilization of an egg which results
in seed that is capable of producing a new plant.
• Seed production varies greatly among and within weed species
in part due to environmental variability between years,
competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability.
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 Vegetative reproduction
• In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new
plant develops from a vegetative organ such as
a stem, root or leaf.
• Several modifications of these organs are
common in perennial weeds, such as
underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground
stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
• Although vegetative structures generally do not
survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very
small structures can result in a new plant.
• Canada thistle, for example, can produce a new
plant from as small as a 1/4-inch section of
root.
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 Some of the vegetative propagules are described as follows:

• Rhizome: A horizontal, underground stem which can produce adventitious roots

and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes.
• A rhizome can be distinguished from a root because rhizomes have nodes,
internodes, and scale leaves (rudimentary leaves).
• Roots do not have nodes or leaves, Johnson grass is example.

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Stolon

Stolon: An above-ground stem that

grows flat on the ground and can
produce adventitious roots and
shoots (i.e., new plants) at the
nodes.
Bermuda grass is example.

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 Tuber
Tuber: Enlarged terminal portion of
rhizomes, possess extensive storage
tissues and axillary buds.
Yellow nut sedge is example.

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 Bulb
Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ
consisting of fleshy leaves with a short stem at
the base.
- Food storage in the leaves
- Wild garlic is example.

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 Creeping roots
Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for
food storage and vegetative reproduction (can give rise
to shoots).
- Often deep in the soil.
- Carolina horse nettle is example

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 DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL OF WEEDS
• A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual.
• However, a seed is in a diapause state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the
ecological conditions that will allow it to grow into an plant, and produce its own seeds.
• Seeds must therefore germinate in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young
seedling, develop into a juvenile plant, and finally become a sexually mature adult that can
pass its genetic material on to the next generation.
• The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat at some distance away from the parent plant.
• The reason for dispersal is that closely related organisms have similar ecological requirements.
• Obviously, competition with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its seeds have a
mechanism to disperse some distance away.
• Their ability to spread and remain viable in the soil for years makes eradication nearly
impossible.

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 Cont.
• Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent
travelers.
• Plants have evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds
effectively.
• Many species of plants have seeds with anatomical structures that
make them very buoyant, so they can be dispersed over great
distances by the winds.
• In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could not
have moved from one country to another.
• An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits requires two essentials
a successful dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new
environment.
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 COMMON WEED DISPERSAL AGENTS
(a) Wind
• Many seeds are well adapted to
wind travel.
• Cottony coverings and parachute-
like structures allow seeds to float
with the wind.
• Examples of wind-dispersed seeds
include common milkweed
(Asclepias syriaca), common
dandelion, Canada thistle, and
perennial sowthistle (Sonchus
arvensis). 
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 Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind
possess special organs to keep them afloat.
Such organs are:
• Pappus – It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into
hairs e.g. Asteraceae family weeds - Tridax procumbens

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• Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with
hairs, partially or fully e.g. Calotropis sp.

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• Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are
persistent and feathery
e.g. Anemone sp.

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• Baloon - Modified papery calyx
that encloses the fruits loosely
along with entrapped air
e.g. Physalis minima
• Wings - One or more appendages
that act as wings e.g. Acer
macrophyllum

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 Factors that influence wind dispersal:
• Seed weight
• Seed shape
• Structures (wings or pappus)
• Height of release
• Wind speed and turbulence

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 (b) Water

• Aquatic weeds disperse largely through water.

• They may drift either as whole plants, plant fragments or as seeds
with the water currents.
• Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse through irrigation and drainage
water.
• Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff into irrigation
water and ponds, where it is carried to other fields.
• Weeds growing in ditch banks along irrigation canals and ponds are
the major source of weed seed contamination of irrigation water.

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 (c) Animals
• Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks,
spines, and rasps that cling to the fur of animals or to
clothing and then can be dispersed to long distances.
• Farm animals carry weed seeds and fruits on their skin,
hair and hooves.
• This is aided by special appendages such as Hooks
(Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp),
Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris) and Scarious bracts
(Achyranthus aspera).
• Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds.
• Donkeys eat Mesquite ( Prosophis julifera )pods.

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 (d) Dispersal by Man
• Man disperses numerous weed seeds and
fruits with raw agricultural produce.
• Weeds mature at the same time and height
along with crop.
• Due to their similar size and shape as that
of crop seed man unknowingly harvest the
weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed
 seeds.
• Such weeds are called “Satellite weeds”
e.g. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.

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 (e) Dispersal by machinery
• Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and
harvesting equipments.
• Seeds move from field to field on the soil that sticks to
tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on
tillage and cultivation equipment and latter dropping
them in other fields to start new infestation.
• Disc-type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag
vegetative plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.

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 (f) Intercontinental movement of weeds

• Introduction of weeds from one continent to another is through crop

seed, feed stock, packing material and nursery stock e.g. Parthenium
hysterophorus

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 (g) Crop mimicry dispersal
• Weed seed adaptations to look like crop
seed: plant body or seed same size,
shape, and morphology as crop e.g.
barnyard grass bio-type looking like rice
escapes hand weeding and is dispersed
with rice.
• Nightshade fruit (berries) are same
size, shape as dry beans, harvested and
dispersed with beans.

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 ( h) As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw
• Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the
seeding of a new crop or in animal feed and bedding than
by any other method.
• Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage of weed seed,
but consider this example.
• If a legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a
parasitic annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by
weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg of legume
seed.
• If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely
low dodder seed percentage by weight, the small size of
the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth, could
result in an infested legume field within a single season.
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 PERSISTENCE OF WEEDS
(ADAPTATION)

• Persistence is an adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow

in any environment.
• In an agricultural situation, the cropping system with its (associated
habitat) management practices, determines the persistence of weed
 species.
• It is largely influenced by climatic, edaphic (soil) and biotic factors,
which affect its occurrence, abundance, range and distribution.

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 Factors Affecting Persistence

A. Climatic factors
- Climate can effect variations in cuticle development, pubescence,
vegetative growth, vigour, competitiveness etc.
• Climate thus has a profound effect on the persistence of weeds which
can adapt to a wide variety of climates.
• The important climatic factors are light, temperature, rainfall, wind
and humidity.

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 Cont.
i) Light:
Light intensity, quality and duration are important in influencing the germination,
growth, reproduction and distribution of weeds.
Photoperiod governs flowering time, seed setting and maturation and on the evolution
of various ecotypes within a weed species.
Tolerance to shading is a major adaptation that enables weeds to persist.
ii) Temperature:
Temperature of atmosphere and soil affects the latitudinal and longitudinal distribution
of weeds.
Soil temperature affects seed germination and dormancy, which is a major survival
mechanism of weeds.
iii) Rainfall:
Rainfall has a significant effect on weed persistence and distribution.
More rainfall or less rainfall determines reproduction & survival.
iv) Wind:
Wind is a principal factor in the dissemination of weeds.
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 B. Soil factors:
• Soil factors are soil water, aeration, temperature, pH and fertility level and
cropping system.
• Some weed species are characteristically alkali plants, known as basophilic (pH
8.5) which can grow well in alkali soils and those grow in acidic soil is known as
Acidophiles.
• Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils.
• A shift in soil pH, towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium
sulphate as a ‘N’ source could cause a shift in the weed spectrum.
• Many weeds can grow well in soils of low fertility level however, can adapt well
to soils of high fertility also.
• Weeds also has adaptation to moist soil, drought condition etc.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 61
 C. Biotic factors:
• In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds
are those exerted by the crop as it competes for
available resources.
• Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its
persistence is determined by the degree of
competition offered by the crop and also the
agricultural practices associated with the growing of
a crop may encourage or discourage specific weeds.
e.g. Ponding of water – Cynodon dies
• Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge.
Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds,
(Sorghum – Striga sp) crop-induced stimulants are
examples of other biotic factors.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 62
 Weed Ecology
• Weeds are the most costly category of agricultural pests.
• Worldwide, weeds cause more yield loss and add more to farmers’
production costs than insect pests, crop pathogens, root-feeding
nematodes, or warm-blooded pests (rodents, birds, deer, and other
large grazers).
• Because organic farming principles and standards preclude the use
of most herbicides, many organic farmers consider weeds their
most serious barrier to successful organic production, and effective
organic weed control a top research priority.
• In particular, weeds are a constant fact of life in vegetable crops.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 63
 Cont.

• With a little diligence and timely weeding, the home gardener can
turn most weeds into beneficial organic matter.
• However, weed control costs can really add up in a one-acre market
garden, and a weedy vegetable field at the 10–100-acre scale can
spell a crop failure.
• Having an ecological understanding of weeds is the foundation of an
effective organic weed management program that can make the
difference between success and failure.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 64
 Chapter 3. Competition
Weed crop Competition
• Weed-crop competition for nutrients, especially for nitrogen, is one
of the most important problems since the availability of nitrogen is
often the limiting factor in plant growth especially in soils with low
supplementary ability.
• The factors that account for nitrogen variation in crop systems are
soil type, soil organic content and availability of water, seasonal
precipitation, date of sowing, choice of variety, rate and application
of nitrogen fertilization, and weed control.
• Nitrogen management practices can affect the outcome of
competition with respect to the weed population and its competitive
ability relative to the crop.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 65
 Cont.
• It has been reported that broadcast nitrogen
application stimulates the growth of Bromus
tectorum L. more than does deep band placement
in a fallow wheat system .
• Research on the effects of competition for
nitrogen related to crop response has shown that
tall cultivars of wheat subject to relatively high
fertilizer rates could compete more efficiently
with Avena. fatua (common wild oat) due to
competition for light . Avena. fatua 
(common wild oat)
• Reductions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium in a range of cereal crops due to Lolium
rigidum Gaudin, Veronica hederifolia L., and A.
fatua competition have also been reported .
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 66
 Weed –crop interference

• A stable climate is vitally important for life on Earth.

• However, the Earth's climate is now facing rapid changes with
profound effects on the environment and its inhabitants.
• Specifically, melting of the polar ice caps and glaciers is responsible
for rising sea levels, while heatwaves and droughts are becoming
more severe and frequent in more and more regions of the globe.
• All these changes have major consequences for human activities and
the environment.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 67
 What effect does climate change have on vegetable–weed
competition?

• Taking the above questions into consideration, the current review

aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the adaptation
mechanisms in weed species commonly found in Southern Europe in
order to expand the available knowledge regarding the adaptability of
these weeds to drought and elevated temperatures.
• Emphasis is also placed on revealing the effects of drought and
increased temperatures on vegetable–weed competition, and most
importantly, its effect on crop yield, as well as on weed distribution
and population composition in this region.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 68
 Threshold of competition
• An economic threshold for weed control, or the “break-even point” is the
level of weed infestation at which the cost of controlling the weeds is equal
to the increase in crop value obtained as a result of controlling the weeds.
• The concept of thresholds has many applications in weed science, depending
on the response being measured.
• The most common adjectives used to describe thresholds are damage,
economic, period, and action.
• Damage threshold is the term used to define the weed population at which a
negative crop yield response is detected.
• An economic threshold is the weed population at which the cost of control is
equal to the crop value increase from control of the weeds present.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 69
 Critical period of weed competition
• The critical period of competition defines how long
weeds can compete with crops before affecting yields.
• Two critical periods are defined.
• The first involves weeds that emerge at the same time
as the crop and compete until a postemergence
strategy is applied.
• These weeds have the greatest potential to affect crop
yields and are the focus of this article.
• The second critical period involves weeds that emerge
after crop emergence.
• As the interval between crop and weed emergence
increases there is less likelihood that the weeds will
impact yields.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 70
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 71
 Soil, climate, weed and crop density effect
• Rice (Oryza sativa L.)—wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (RW) is the
major agri-food system occupying an area of 13.5 Mha in the
Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of South Asia; of which ten Mha in
India, with almost 50% (5 Mha) are in western IGP comprising of
Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, the food basket of
India.
• With conventional management practices, high productivity
derived from this continuous RW system are at the cost of over-
exploitation of resources (i.e. groundwater, soil, energy) and high
use of inputs, (i.e. irrigation, fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides)
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 72
 Cont.
Canary grass (Phalaris minor)
• The sustainability of the RW system in western
Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) is doubtful due to
the rapid decline in soil and water resources,
and environmental quality.
• Furthermore, continued cultivation of the
same cropping system (i.e. rice–wheat system)
over the last five decades allowed certain weed
species like Canary grass (Phalaris minor) to
adapt, increase their establishment, seedbank
and profusion.
• Such weeds adversely affect resource use
efficiency (light, water and nutrients), and crop
productivity
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 73
 Chapter 4.
Principles and practices of weed management
4.1. History of weed control
• The intentional manipulation of wild plants to become desirable crops was the
beginning of agriculture some 10,000 years ago.
• Along with this beginning came weeds; unwanted plants that prospered in the
same human-created environments.
• Weeds are therefore just as much a part of our domestic culture as the crops.
• So the history of weed control technology is co-existent with the history of
agricultural technology.
• If you search the internet for the history of agriculture, you will find lots of
information.
• If, however, you search the internet for the history of weeds, you will be
disappointed by the lack of literature and references on the subject.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 74
 Prevention, control and eradication

•  Integrated weed management involves developing a control plan

which is implemented over a period of time.
• Control plans are dictated by the type of weed, severity of infestation
and proximity to water, trees and other native or desirable vegetation.
• PREVENTION is the first line of defense in keep weeds from occurring
or increasing in an area.
• Utilize only certified weed free seed, hay, gravel or fill.
• People, animals and equipment transport and distribute weed seeds.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 75
 Cont.
• Ensure equipment and vehicles are clean
and free of visible debris before entering a
weed free zone.
• In addition, ground disturbance needs to
be minimized as much as possible on all
lands, including construction,
maintenance activities and all general
land uses.
• All areas are prone to infestation when
disturbed; re-vegetation of native species
is needed immediately after the
disturbance has occurred.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 76
 Cont.

• There are four main tools used for control; chemical, cultural, mechanical,
and biological.
• THE BEST TIME TO ERADICATE NOXIOUS WEEDS IS BEFORE THEY GET
ESTABLISHED IN AN AREA.
• Chemical control – Selective herbicides (Milestone, Curtail, 2, 4-D) target
broadleaf plants and won’t harm grasses.
• Broad spectrum or nonselective herbicides (Roundup) control a large variety
of vegetation.
• These are most often used when total vegetation control desirable and
reseeding is desired.
• Under most circumstances a select broadleaf herbicide is recommended.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 77
 Cont.

• EARLY DETECTION AND ERRADICATION of newly introduced weeds is the best

way to prevent establishment.
• Early detection programs should include weed identification, mapping and
determining high priority areas.
• Certain areas may be more vulnerable to disturbance or weed invasion, and
should be considered high priority areas.
• These areas should be clearly marked on a map and should be inventoried
whenever possible.
• It’s suggested to identify and map all of your weeds during the flowering stage.
• This is when they are most noticeable.
• Control options may vary depending upon weed species and location.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 78
 Elements of weed control –Physical, ecological, biological,
chemical and integrated weed management.

• Weed control is the botanical component of pest control, which

attempts to stop weeds, especially noxious weeds, from competing
with desired flora and fauna. including domesticated plants and 
livestock, and in natural settings preventing non native species
competing with native species.
• Weed control is important in agriculture.
• Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation
with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, 
burning, and chemical control with herbicides (weed killers).
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 79
 Cont.
• Onions are one of the most
vulnerable, because they are slow to
germinate and produce slender,
upright stems.
• By contrast broad beans produce
large seedlings and suffer far fewer
effects other than during periods of
water shortage at the crucial time
when the pods are filling out.
• Transplanted crops raised in sterile
soil or potting compost gain a head
start over germinating weeds.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 80
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 81
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 82
 METHODS OF WEED CONTROL – PHYSICAL & CULTURAL
• For designing any weed control programme in a given area, one
must know the nature & habitat of the weeds in that area, how they
react to environmental changes & how they respond to herbicides.
• Before selecting a method of weed control one, much have
information on the number of viable seeds nature of dispersal of
seeds, dormancy of seeds, longevity of buried seeds & ability to
survive under adverse conditions, life span of the weed, soil
textures moisture and (In case of soil applied volatile herbicides the
herbicide will be successful only in sandy loam soil but not in clayey
soil.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 83
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 84
 Cont.
• Flooding as a method of weed control will be successful only in heavy soil & the area
to be controlled.
• Principles of weed control are; a) Prevention b) Eradication c) Control d) Management.
• Preventive weed control. It encompasses all measures taken to prevent the
introduction and/or establishment and spread of weeds.
• Such areas may be local, regional or national in size.
• No weed control programme is successful if adequate preventive measures are not
taken to reduce weed infestation.
• It is a long term planning so that the weeds could be controlled or managed more
effectively and economically than is possible where these are allowed to disperse
freely.
• Following preventive control measures are suggested for adoption wherever possible
& practicable.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 85
 Cont.
1. Avoid using crop that are infested with weed seeds for sowing
2. Avoid feeding screenings and other material containing weed seeds to the farm
animals.
3. Avoid adding weeds to the manure pits.
4. Clean the farm machinery thoroughly before moving it from one field to another. This
is particularly important for seed drills
5. Avoid the use of gravel sand and soil from weed-infested
6. Inspect nursery stock for the presence of weed seedlings, tubers, rhizomes, etc.
7. Keep irrigation channels, fence-lines, and un-cropped areas clean
8. Use vigilance. Inspect your farm frequently for an ny strange looking weed seedlings.
Destroy such patches of a new weed by digging deep and burning the weed along with
its roots.
Sterilize the spot with suitable chemical.
9. Quarantine regulations are available in almost all countries to deny the entry of weed
seeds11/06/2022
and other propagules into a country through airports and shipyards.
COMPILED BY GA 86
 MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL
Mechanical or physical methods of weed control are being employed ever since man
began to grow crops.
The mechanical methods include tillage, hoeing, hand weeding, digging cheeling,
sickling, mowing, burning, flooding, mulching etc.
1.Tillage Tillage removes weeds from the soil resulting in their death. It may weaken
plants through injury of root and stem pruning, reducing their competitiveness or
regenerative capacity.
Tillage also buries weeds. Tillage operation includes ploughing, discing, harrowing
and leveling which is used to promote the germination of weeds through soil
turnover and exposure of seeds to sunlight, which can be destroyed effectively later.
In case of perennials, both top and underground growth is injured and destroyed by
tillage.
2. Hoeing Hoe has been the most appropriate and widely used weeding tool for
centuries.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 87
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 88
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 89
 Merits of Mechanical Method
• Oldest, effective and economical
method
• Large area can be covered in shorter
time
• Safe method for environment
• Does not involve any skill
• Weeding is possible in between
plants
• Deep rooted weeds can be controlled
effectively

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 90
 Demerits of Mechanical Method
• 1) Labour consuming
• 2) Possibility of damaging crop
• 3) Requires ideal and optimum specific
condition

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 91
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 92
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 93
 CULTURAL WEED CONTROL
• Several cultural practices like tillage, planting, fertiliser application, irrigation
etc., are employed for creating favourable condition for the crop.
• These practices if used properly, help in controlling weeds.
• Cultural methods, alone cannot control weeds, but help in reducing weed
population.
• They should, therefore, be used in combination with other methods.
• In cultural methods, tillage, fertiliser application and irrigation are important.
• In addition, aspects like selection of variety, time of sowing, cropping system,
cleanliness of the farm etc., are also useful in controlling weeds.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 94
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 95
 Cont.
• Field preparation The field has to be kept weed free.
• Flowering of weeds should not be allowed. This helps in prevention of build up
of weed seed population.
• Summer tillage The practice of summer tillage or off-season tillage is one of
the effective cultural methods to check the growth of perennial weed
population in crop cultivation.
• Initial tillage before cropping should encourage clod formation.
• These clods, which have the weed propagules, upon drying desiccate the same.
• Subsequent tillage operations should break the clods into small units to further
expose the shriveled weeds to the hot sun.
• Maintenance of optimum plant population Lack of adequate plant
population is prone to heavy weed infestation, which becomes, difficult to
control later.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 96
 Cont. Coco-grass, Java grass,
• Crop rotation - The possibility of a certain weed species or group Nut grass,
of species occurring is greater if the same crop is grown year after (Cyperus rotundus)
year.
• In many instances, crop rotation can eliminate at least reduce
difficult weed problems.
• The noxious weeds like (Coco-grass) Cyperus rotundus can
be controlled effectively by including low land rice in crop rotation.
• Growing of intercrops - Inter cropping suppresses weeds better
than sole cropping and thus provides an opportunity to utilize
crops themselves as tools of weed management.
• Many short duration pulses viz., green gram and soybean
effectively smother weeds without causing reduction in the yield
of main crop.
• Mulching - Mulch is a protective covering of material maintained
on soil surface.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 97
 Cont.
• Solarisation This is another method of utilization of solar energy
for the desiccation of weeds.
• In this method, the soil temperature is further raised by 5 – 10 ºC by
covering a pre-soaked fallow field with thin transparent plastic sheet.
• The plastic sheet checks the long wave back radiation from the soil and
prevents loss of energy by hindering moisture evaporation.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 98
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 99
• Stale seedbed A stale seedbed is one
where initial one or two flushes of weeds are
destroyed before planting of a crop.
• This is achieved by soaking a well prepared
field with either irrigation or rain and allowing
the weeds to germinate.
• At this stage a shallow tillage or non- residual
herbicide like paraquat may be used to destroy
the dense flush of young weed seedlings.
• This may be followed immediately by sowing.
• This technique allows the crop to germinate in
almost weed free environment.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 100

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 101
• Blind tillage - The tillage of the soil
after sowing a crop before the crop
plants emerge is known as blind
tillage.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 102

 Cont.
Crop management practices
Good crop management practices that play an important role in weed
control are:-
• a. Vigorous and fast growing crop varieties are better competitors with
weeds.
• b. Proper placement of fertilizers ensures greater availability of nutrients
to crop plants, thus keeping the weeds at a disadvantage.
• c. Better irrigation practices to have a good head start over the weeds
• d. Proper crop rotation programme
• e. Higher plant population per unit area results in smothering effect on
weed growth.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 103

 Merits of Cultural Method
1. Low cost for weed control
2. Easy to adopt
3. No residual Problem
4. Technical skill is not involved
5. No damage to crops
6. Effective weed control
7. Crop-weed ecosystem is
maintained

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 104

 Demerits of Cultural Method
1. Immediate and quick weed control is not possible
2. Weeds are kept under suppressed condition
3. Perennial and problematic weeds cannot be
controlled
4. Practical difficulty in adoption

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 105

 Biological methods
• A biological weed control regiment can consist of biological control agents, 
bioherbicides, use of grazing animals, and protection of natural predators.
• Post-dispersal, weed seed predators, like ground beetles and small vertebrates,
can substantially contribute to the weed regulation by removing weed seeds
from the soil surface and thus reduce seed bank size.
• Several studies provided evidence for the role of invertebrates to the biological
control of weeds.
• Organic weed control involves anything other than applying manufactured
chemicals.
• Typically a combination of methods are used to achieve satisfactory control.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 106

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 107
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 108
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 109
 Chapter 5 Herbicides
• Herbicides are chemicals used to manipulate or control undesirable
vegetation.
• Herbicide application occurs most frequently in row-crop farming, where they
are applied before or during planting to maximize crop productivity by
minimizing other vegetation.
• Herbicides  also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to
control unwanted plants.
• Selective herbicides control specific weed species, while leaving the desired 
crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides (sometimes
called total weed killers in commercial products) can be used to clear waste
ground, industrial and construction sites, railways and railway embankments as
they kill all plant material with which they come into contact.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 110
 Cont.
• Apart from selective/non-selective, other important distinctions
include persistence (also known as residual action: how long the
product stays in place and remains active), means of uptake (whether
it is absorbed by above-ground foliage only, through the roots, or by
other means), and mechanism of action (how it works).
• Historically, products such as common salt and other metal salts were
used as herbicides, however these have gradually fallen out of favor
and in some countries a number of these are banned due to their
persistence in soil, and toxicity and groundwater contamination
 concerns.
• Herbicides have also been used in warfare and conflict.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 111

 Cont.
• Modern herbicides are often synthetic mimics of natural plant hormones which
interfere with growth of the target plants.
• The term organic herbicide has come to mean herbicides intended for 
organic farming.
• Some plants also produce their own natural herbicides, such as the genus 
Juglans (walnuts), or the tree of heaven; such action of natural herbicides, and
other related chemical interactions, is called allelopathy.
• Due to herbicide resistance – a major concern in agriculture – a number of
products combine herbicides with different means of action.
• Integrated pest management may use herbicides alongside other pest control
methods.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 112

Plants also produce their own natural herbicides, such as the genus 
Juglans (walnuts)

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 113

 History
• Prior to the widespread use of herbicides, cultural controls, such as altering 
soil pH, salinity, or fertility levels, were used to control weeds.
•  Mechanical control (including tillage) was also (and still is) used to control
weeds.
• 2,4-D, the first chemical herbicide, was discovered during the Second World War.
• Although research into herbicides began in the early 20th century, the first major
breakthrough was the result of research conducted in both the United Kingdom
and the United States during the Second World War into the potential 
use of herbicides in war.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 114

 Method of application
• Soil applied: Herbicides applied to the soil are usually taken up by
the root or shoot of the emerging seedlings and are used as
preplant or preemergence treatment.
• Several factors influence the effectiveness of soil-applied
herbicides.
• Weeds absorb herbicides by both passive and active mechanisms.
Herbicide adsorption to soil colloids or organic matter often
reduces its amount available for weed absorption.
• Positioning of the herbicide in the correct layer of soil is very
important, which can be achieved mechanically and by rainfall.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 115

• Herbicides on the soil surface are subjected to several
processes that reduce their availability.
• Volatility and photolysis are two common processes that
reduce the availability of herbicides.
• Many soil applied herbicides are absorbed through plant
shoots while they are still underground leading to their death
or injury.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 116

 Cont.

• Foliar applied: These are applied to portion of the plant above the
ground and are absorbed by exposed tissues.
• These are generally postemergence herbicides and can either be
translocated (systemic) throughout the plant or remain at specific site
(contact).
• External barriers of plants like cuticle, waxes, cell wall etc. affect
herbicide absorption and action. Glyphosate, 2,4-D, and dicamba are
foliar applied herbicide.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 117

 Herbicide Use History

• Imagine there is a tool that enables you to complete a difficult job

much quicker. 
• You end up with as good as, if not better, results when you use this
tool compared to when you do not. 
• It is even pretty inexpensive when you compare it to other tools you
could choose, and makes the work easier and safer. 
• Would you use this tool to help you complete your work?  Most of us
would answer with a loud YES!  It’s human nature to find an easier
and better way to solve a problem or to complete our work.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 118

 Health and environmental effects
• Herbicides have widely variable toxicity in addition to acute toxicity
 arising from ingestion of a significant quantity rapidly, and 
chronic toxicity arising from environmental and occupational exposure
over long periods.
• Much public suspicion of herbicides revolves around a confusion between
valid statements of acute toxicity as opposed to equally valid statements
of lack of chronic toxicity at the recommended levels of usage.
• For instance, while glyphosate formulations with
tallowamine adjuvants are acutely toxic, their use was found to be
uncorrelated with any health issues like cancer in a massive US
Department of Health study on 90,000 members of farmer families for
over a period of 23 years.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 119
 Ecological effects
• Commercial herbicide use generally has negative impacts on bird populations,
although the impacts are highly variable and often require field studies to predict
accurately.
• Laboratory studies have at times overestimated negative impacts on birds due to
toxicity, predicting serious problems that were not observed in the field.
•  Most observed effects are due not to toxicity, but to habitat changes and the
decreases in abundance of species on which birds rely for food or shelter.
• Herbicide use in silviculture, used to favor certain types of growth following 
clearcutting, can cause significant drops in bird populations.
• Even when herbicides which have low toxicity to birds are used, they decrease
the abundance of many types of vegetation on which the birds rely.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 120

 Resistance

• Weed resistance to herbicides has become a major concern in crop

production worldwide.
•  Resistance to herbicides is often attributed to lack of rotational
programmes of herbicides and to continuous applications of
herbicides with the same sites of action.
•  Thus, a true understanding of the sites of action of herbicides is
essential for strategic planning of herbicide-based weed control.
• Plants have developed resistance to atrazine and to ALS-inhibitors,
and more recently, to glyphosate herbicides.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 121

 Resistance management

• Worldwide experience has been that farmers tend to do little to

prevent herbicide resistance developing, and only take action when it
is a problem on their own farm or neighbor’s.
• Careful observation is important so that any reduction in herbicide
efficacy can be detected.
• This may indicate evolving resistance.
• It is vital that resistance is detected at an early stage as if it becomes
an acute, whole-farm problem, options are more limited and greater
expense is almost inevitable.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 122

 Approaches to treating resistant weeds
• When resistance is first suspected or confirmed, the efficacy of
alternatives is likely to be the first consideration.
• The use of alternative herbicides which remain effective on resistant
populations can be a successful strategy, at least in the short term.
• The effectiveness of alternative herbicides will be highly dependent on
the extent of cross-resistance.
• If there is resistance to a single group of herbicides, then the use of
herbicides from other groups may provide a simple and effective
solution, at least in the short term.
• For example, many triazine-resistant weeds have been readily controlled
by the use of alternative herbicides such as dicamba or glyphosate.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 123

 CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES
1) Based on Method of application
i) Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other
underground parts of weeds .e.g. Fluchloralin
ii) Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant
foliage e.g. Glyphosate, Paraquat

2) Based on Mode of action

i) Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a
mixed growth of plant species, it kills some species without injuring the
others.e.g. Atrazine
ii) Non-selective herbicide: It destroys majority of treated vegetation e.g.
Paraquat
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 124
 3) Based on mobility

i) Contact herbicide: 
A contact herbicide kills those plant
parts with which it comes in direct
contact e.g. Paraquat

ii) Translocated herbicide/Systemic

Herbicide: 
Herbicide which tends to move from
treated part to untreated areas through
xylem / phloem tissues depending on
the nature of its molecule. e.g.
Glyphosate

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 125

 4) Based on Time of application
• Pre - plant application: Application
of herbicides before the crop is
planted or sown. Soil application as
well as foliar application is done
here.
• For example, fluchloralin can be
applied to soil and incorporated
before sowing rainfed groundnut
while glyphosate can be applied on
the foliage of perennial weeds like
NUT GRASS ( Cyperus rotundus)
before planting of any crop.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 126

 ii) Pre – emergence
• Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of
annual crops application is done after the sowing of the crop but before
the emergence of weeds and this is referred as pre-emergence to the
crop while in the case perennial crops it can be said as pre-emergence
to weeds.
• For example soil application by spraying of atrazine on 3rd DAT to
sugarcane can be termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil
application by spraying the same immediately after a rain to control a
new flush of weeds in a inter-cultivated orchard can be specified as pre-
emergence to weed.e.g. Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor,
Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 127

 iii) Post – emergence
• Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as
post-emergence application.
• When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the
soil and are killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence.
• For example spraying 2, 4-D Na salt to control parasitic weed striga in
sugarcane is called as post-emergence while spraying of paraquat to control
emerged weeds after 10-15 days after planting potato can be called as early
post-emergence. e.g. Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D Na Salt.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 128

 iv) Early post emergence:

•  Another application of herbicide in the slow growing crops like potato,

sugarcane, 2-3 week after sowing is classified as early post emergence.

5) Based on molecular structure:

• Inorganic compounds
• Organic compounds

Herbicide formulation:
• Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile,
soluble or insoluble.
• Hence these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use.
• An herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the
active ingredient with substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants,
stickers, stabilizers etc.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 129
 Objectives in herbicide formulations are;
• Ease of handling
• High controlled activity on the target plants
Need for preparing herbicide formulation

• To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety

of types of application equipment and conditions.
• To prepare a product which is effective and economically feasible to
use
• To prepare a product which is suitable for storage under local
conditions?

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 130

 Types of formulation
I. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC): A concentrated herbicide formulation
containing organic solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with water
e.g., Butachlor

ii. Wettable powders (WP): A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together

with an added surface acting agent. The material is finely ground so that it may
form a suspension when agitated with a required volume of water e.g., Atrazine

iii. Granules (G): The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the
herbicide (active ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground
plant parts (ground corn cobs) as carrier material e.g. Alachlor granules.

iv. Water soluble concentrates (WSC): e.g. paraquat

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 131

 METHODS OF HERBICIDE
APPLICATION
1. Spraying
2. Broadcasting

Factors determining the methods of application are:

• Weed-crop situation
• Type of herbicides
• Mode of action and selectivity
• Environmental factors
• Cost and convenience of application
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 132
 Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified into

1. Soil applied herbicides

2. Foliage applied or foliar herbicides

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 133

Different methods by which these herbicides are
applied are tabulated below:
Soil application Foliar application

1 Surface i. Blanket spray

2 Sub surface ii. Directed spray
3 Band iii. Protected spray

4 Fumigation iv. Spot treatment

5 Herbigation
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 134
 1. Soil application of herbicides:

(i) Surface application

• Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the soil
either by spraying or by broadcasting.
• The applied herbicides are either left undisturbed or incorporated in
to the soil.
• Incorporation is done to prevent the volatilization and photo-
decomposition of the herbicides.
• e.g. Fluchoralin – Left undisturbed under irrigated condition
- Incorporated under rainfed condition

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 135

 (ii). Subsurface application
• It is the application of herbicides in a
concentrated band, about 7-10 cm below the
soil surface for controlling perennial weeds.
• For this special type of nozzles introduced below
the soil under the cover of a sweep hood.
• e.g. Carbamate herbicides to control
NUT GRASS ( Cyperus rotundus)
Nitralin herbicides to control Field bindweed
( Convolvulus arvensis)

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 136

 (iii). Band application

• Application to a restricted band along the crop rows leaving an

untreated band in the inter-rows.
• Later inter-rows are cultivated to remove the weeds. Saving in cost is
possible here.
• For example when a 30 cm wide band of a herbicide applied over a
crop row that were spaced 90 cm apart, then two-third cost is saved.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 137

 (iv). Fumigation

• Application of volatile chemicals in to confined spaces or in to the soil

to produce gas that will destroy weed seeds is called fumigation.
• Herbicides used for fumigation are called as fumigants.
• These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for eliminating 
weed seeds. e.g. Methyl bromide, Metham

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 138

 (v). Herbigation

• It is the application of herbicides with irrigation water both by surface

and sprinkler systems.
• In India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in
western countries application of EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is
very common in Lucerne.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 139

 2. Foliar application
(i) Blanket spray
• It is the uniform application of herbicides to standing crops without
considering the location of the crop.
• Only highly selective herbicides are used here e.g. Spraying 2,4-Ethyl
Ester to rice three weeks after transplanting.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 140

 (ii). Directed spray
• It is the application of herbicides on weeds in
between rows of crops by directing the spray
only on weeds avoiding the crop.
• This could be possible by use of protective
shield or hood.
• For example, spraying of glyphosate in
between rows of tapioca using hood to
control NUT GRASS ( Cyperus rotundus).

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 141

 (iii). Protected spray
• It is a method of applying non-selective herbicides on
weeds by covering the crops which are wide spaced with
polyethylene covers etc.
• This is expensive and laborious.
• However, farmers are using this technique for spraying
glyphosate to control weeds in jasmine, cassava, banana.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 142

(iv). Spot treatment

• It is usually done on small areas having serious weed infestation to kill

it and to prevent its spread.
• Rope wick applicator and Herbicide glove are useful here.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 143

 Calibration Introduction
• Calibration is the process of measuring and adjusting the amount of
pesticide your equipment will apply over a target area.
• It is a critical “first step” in making certain that your equipment is applying
pesticide uniformly and at the correct rate. 
• Calibrating your equipment will save you money, by not wasting
pesticides from overapplication; and time, by preventing the need for re-
application from underapplication.
• Overapplying pesticides also can result in excess residues on or in plants, soil,
and surface or groundwater. 
• Remember that exceeding the label rate of application is a violation of the
law!

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 144

 Cont.

• Whenever possible, calibration should be done using water or

another non-toxic carrier.
• Wear the appropriate protective equipment whenever using a
pesticide.
• Remember to always read and follow all of the pesticide label
information.
Precalibration
• Before you begin to calibrate a sprayer, check it carefully to be sure
that all components are in good working condition.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 145

 To prepare sprayers:
1. Remove nozzles and screens and clean them in soapy water with a soft brush.
Remove any deposits from the nozzle opening with a toothpick or
compressed air.
(Never use a knife or metallic object to clean nozzles,it will ruin them.)
Never try to unclog a nozzle by blowing through it with your mouth.
2. In a place away from any wells or water supplies, rinse the spray tank
thoroughly and partially fill it with clean water.
3. Pressurize the sprayer and flush hoses and boom with plenty of water.
4. Reinstall nozzles. For boom sprayers with multiple nozzles, make sure that all
nozzles are the same size and type.
Choose the right nozzle size, type, and alignment for your application needs (see
Nozzle Tip Selection).
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 146
 Cont.

5. Pressurize the sprayer and check nozzles for uniform output by spraying water
on the pavement and watching for streaks as the spray dries.  Wet streaks directly
under the nozzles may result from damaged or worn nozzle tips, low operating
pressure, or low boom height. Wet streaks between nozzles may result from
incorrect alignment or boom height. Clogged nozzles may produce streaks
anywhere in the spray pattern of the bad nozzle. Replace any nozzle producing
heavy or light streaks and recheck for an even pattern.
6. Check all hoses, fittings, and the pump for leaks.
7. Check all pressure gauges. If a gauge is rusty or of questionable accuracy,
replace it.
8. If you are using a sprayer with multiple nozzles on a boom, follow the steps
below to be sure that all the nozzles are releasing nearly equal amounts of spray
solution (use water for this procedure):
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 147
 Cont.

• Step 1.
• Find a container marked in ounces.
• With the sprayer operating at the desired pressure, catch the output from each
nozzle for 30 seconds and write down the number of ounces from each nozzle.
• Step 2.
• After catching the spray from each nozzle individually, add the amounts caught and
divide by the number of nozzles to get the average output per nozzle.
• Step 3.
• If the output from any nozzle is more than 10 percent above or below the average,
clean or replace that nozzle.
• Step 4.
• Recheck the output from all nozzles. Use the new output to figure a new average.
Make appropriate nozzle changes, if necessary.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 148
Example of Nozzle Output Before you begin to calibrate a sprayer, check it carefully to be sure that all components
are in good working condition.
Nozzle Output Test #1 Output Test #2
(Ounces after 30 seconds) (Ounces after 30 seconds)

1 25 25
2 20 24
3 24 25
4 23 25
5 25 24
6 24 26
7 23 25
8 28 26
Total 192 ounces 200 ounces
divided by 8 nozzles divided by 8 nozzles

Average = 24 ounces = 25 ounces

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 149
 Typical agricultural spray system.

• Spray pressures range from near 0

to over 300 pounds per square inch
(PSI), and application rates can
vary from less than 1 to over 100
gallons per acre (GPA).
• All sprayers have several basic
components: pump, tank, agitation
system, flow-control assembly,
pressure gauge, and distribution
system (figure).

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 150

 Cont.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 151

 Cont.
• Properly applied pesticides should be expected to return a profit. Improper or
inaccurate application is usually very expensive and will result in wasted
chemical, marginal pest control, excessive carryover, or crop damage.
• Agriculture is under intense economic and environmental pressure today. The
high cost of pesticides and the need to protect the environment are incentives
for applicators to do their very best in handling and applying pesticides.
• Studies have shown that many application errors are due to improper
calibration of the sprayer.
• A North Dakota study found that 60 percent of the applicators were over or
under applying pesticides by more than 10 percent of their intended rate.
Several were in error by 30 percent or more.
• A study in another state found that four out of five sprayers had calibration
errors and one out of three had mixing errors.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 152

 Cont.

• Applicators of pesticides need to know proper application methods,

chemical effects on equipment, equipment calibration, and correct
cleaning methods. Equipment should be recalibrated periodically to
compensate for wear in pumps, nozzles, and metering systems. Dry
flowables may wear nozzle tips and may cause an increase in
application rates after spraying as little as 50 acres.
• Improperly used agricultural pesticides are dangerous. It is extremely
important to observe safety precautions, wear protective clothing
when working with pesticides, and follow directions for each specific
chemical. Consult the operator’s manual for detailed information on a
particular sprayer.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 153
 Herbicide rotations

• Rotation of herbicides from different chemical groups in successive years

should reduce selection for resistance.
• This is a key element in most resistance prevention programmes.
• The value of this approach depends on the extent of cross-resistance, and
whether multiple resistance occurs owing to the presence of several different
resistance mechanisms.
• A practical problem can be the lack of awareness by farmers of the different
groups of herbicides that exist.
• In Australia a scheme has been introduced in which identifying letters are
included on the product label as a means of enabling farmers to distinguish
products with different modes of action.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 154
 List of common herbicides
Chemical herbicides types
• 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid)is a broadleaf herbicide in the phenoxy group used in turf
and no-till field crop production.
• Now, it is mainly used in a blend with other herbicides to allow lower rates of herbicides to be used;
it is the most widely used herbicide in the world, and third most commonly used in the United
States.
• It is an example of synthetic auxin (plant hormone).
• Aminopyralid is a broadleaf herbicide in the pyridine group, used to control weeds on grassland,
such as docks, thistles and nettles. It is notorious for its ability to persist in compost.
• Atrazine, a triazine herbicide, is used in corn and sorghum for control of broadleaf weeds and
grasses.
• Still used because of its low cost and because it works well on a broad spectrum of weeds common
in the US corn belt, atrazine is commonly used with other herbicides to reduce the overall rate of
atrazine and to lower the potential for groundwater contamination; it is a photosystem II inhibitor.
• Clopyralid is a broadleaf herbicide in the pyridine group, used mainly in turf, rangeland, and for
control of noxious thistles.
• Notorious for its ability to persist in compost,COMPILED
11/06/2022
it is another
BY GA
example of synthetic auxin. 155
 Cont.
• Dicamba, a postemergent broadleaf herbicide with some soil activity, is used on
turf and field corn. It is another example of a synthetic auxin.
• Glufosinate ammonium, a broad-spectrum contact herbicide, is used to control
weeds after the crop emerges or for total vegetation control on land not used
for cultivation.
• Fluazifop (Fuselade Forte), a post emergence, foliar absorbed, translocated
grass-selective herbicide with little residual action. It is used on a very wide
range of broad leaved crops for control of annual and perennial grasses.
• Fluroxypyr, a systemic, selective herbicide, is used for the control of broad-
leaved weeds in small grain cereals, maize, pastures, rangeland and turf. It is a
synthetic auxin.
• In cereal growing, fluroxypyr's key importance is control of cleavers, Galium
aparine. Other key broadleaf weeds are also controlled.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 156
 Cont.
• Glyphosate, a systemic nonselective herbicide, is used in no-till burndown and
for weed control in crops genetically modified to resist its effects. It is an
example of an EPSPs inhibitor.
• Imazapyr a nonselective herbicide, is used for the control of a broad range of
weeds, including terrestrial annual and perennial grasses and broadleaf herbs,
woody species, and riparian and emergent aquatic species.
• Imazapic, a selective herbicide for both the pre- and postemergent control of
some annual and perennial grasses and some broadleaf weeds, kills plants by
inhibiting the production of branched chain amino acids (valine, leucine, and 
isoleucine), which are necessary for protein synthesis and cell growth.
• Imazamox, an imidazolinone manufactured by BASF for postemergence
application that is an acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor. Sold under trade
names Raptor, Beyond, and Clearcast.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 157

 Cont.

• Linuron is a nonselective herbicide used in the control of grasses and broadleaf

weeds. It works by inhibiting photosynthesis.
• MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) is a phenoxy herbicide selective
for broadleaf plants and widely used in cereals and pasture.
• Metolachlor is a pre-emergent herbicide widely used for control of annual
grasses in corn and sorghum; it has displaced some of the atrazine in these uses.
• Paraquat is a nonselective contact herbicide used for no-till burndown and in
aerial destruction of marijuana and coca plantings.
• It is more acutely toxic to people than any other herbicide in widespread
commercial use.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 158

 Cont.

• Pendimethalin, a pre-emergent herbicide, is widely used to control annual

grasses and some broad-leaf weeds in a wide range of crops, including corn,
soybeans, wheat, cotton, many tree and vine crops, and many turfgrass species.
• Picloram, a pyridine herbicide, mainly is used to control unwanted trees in
pastures and edges of fields. It is another synthetic auxin.
• Sodium chlorate (disused/banned in some countries), a nonselective herbicide,
is considered phytotoxic to all green plant parts. It can also kill through root
absorption.
• Triclopyr, a systemic, foliar herbicide in the pyridine group, is used to control
broadleaf weeds while leaving grasses and conifers unaffected.
• Several sulfonylureas, including Flazasulfuron and Metsulfuron-methyl, which
act as ALS inhibitors and in some cases are taken up from the soil via the roots.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 159

 Organic herbicides
• Recently, the term "organic" has come to imply products used in 
organic farming.
• Under this definition, an organic herbicide is one that can be used in a farming
enterprise that has been classified as organic.
• Depending on the application, they may be less effective than synthetic
herbicides and are generally used along with cultural and 
mechanical weed control practices.
Homemade organic herbicides include:
• Corn gluten meal (CGM) is a natural pre-emergence weed control used in
turfgrass, which reduces germination of many broadleaf and grass weeds.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 160

• Vinegar is effective for 5–20% solutions of
acetic acid, with higher concentrations most
effective, but it mainly destroys surface
growth, so respraying to treat regrowth is
needed.
• Resistant plants generally succumb when
weakened by respraying.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 161

 Cont.
• Steam has been applied commercially, but is now considered uneconomical
and inadequate.
• It controls surface growth but not underground growth and so respraying to
treat regrowth of perennials is needed.
• Flame is considered more effective than steam, but suffers from the same
difficulties.
• D-limonene (citrus oil) is a natural degreasing agent that strips the waxy skin or
cuticle from weeds, causing dehydration and ultimately death.
• Saltwater or salt applied in appropriate strengths to the rootzone will kill most
plants.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 162

 Adjuvants
• Adjuvants are designed to provide big benefits to applicators by improving
pesticide spreading, wetting, canopy and leaf penetration, and adhesion.
• All are key to effective herbicide coverage — and ultimately complete weed kill.
• No half-dead victims or fully intact survivors that live to see another day and
reproduce to pass along herbicide-resistant traits.
• But one job of adjuvants, drift reduction, seems to have taken center stage this
past season.
• In fact, stopping drift has gotten a whole lot more important — and
complicated — as new cropping systems utilizing potent herbicides have hit
fields.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 163

 Spray Adjuvants
• An adjuvant is added to a pesticide product or pesticide spray mixture to
enhance the pesticide's performance and/or the physical properties of the spray
mixture.
• An adjuvant is a substance that is added to a pesticide product or pesticide spray
mixture to enhance the pesticide’s performance and/ or the physical properties
of the spray mixture.
• Over twenty different types of adjuvants are on the market, including
surfactants, oils, compatibility agents, buffering and conditioning agents,
defoaming agents, deposition agents, drift control agents, and thickeners.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 164

 Adjuvants can be defined by how they are combined with
pesticides in these two ways:
• Formulation adjuvants are already included as part of the pesticide product by the
manufacturer when it is made.
• Spray adjuvants are separate products that are added to a pesticide spray solution
by the applicator.
• Since applicators have no control over formulation adjuvants, this publication
focuses on those products classified as spray adjuvants.
• With so many adjuvant products currently in the marketplace, how do you make an
informed decision about which adjuvant to select and use for a particular situation?
• The best way is to have a general understanding of the basic characteristics
associated with the various groups of products found among these diverse
chemistries.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 165

 Adjuvants and Spray Application

• Adjuvants are designed to perform specific functions involving the

mixing and application of pesticides, such as buffering, dispersing,
emulsifying, spreading, sticking, and wetting.
• Adjuvants can also reduce evaporation, foaming, spray drift, and
volatilization.
• No single adjuvant can perform all these functions in all situations,
but different types of adjuvants can often be combined, or purchased
as a prepackaged combination, to perform multiple functions.
• As a result, using adjuvants can help minimize spray application
problems along with increasing a pesticide’s effectiveness.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 166
 Activator Adjuvants

• Activator adjuvants are designed to improve the “activity" of the pesticide, typically
by increasing its absorption rate and reducing the surface tension on the leaf.
• Activator adjuvants include surfactants, oils, and nitrogen-based fertilizers.
Surfactants
- Surfactants (whose name comes from “surface acting agents") physically change
the properties of the spray solution and droplets.
• They help improve the pesticide’s ability to emulsify, disperse, spread, and stick by
reducing surface tension .
• Leaf surfaces, as well as pesticides, have a molecular charge. A surfactant’s charge,
or lack of charge, will determine how it bonds to a pesticide, which in turn affects
how the pesticide will bond to the leaf surface.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 167

 Combination and rotations
Herbicides Rotations
• The constant use of herbicide in the field year after year has been reported to
gradually bring about a change in weed flora and the new weeds are often more
hardy than the orginal ones.
• The phenomenon has been named as ecological shift in weed flora. Many
examples of ecological shifts in response to repeated use of 2,4-D have been
recorded in India.
• The phenomenon is based on the principle that in mixed population of weed
there are always a few plant of one or more weed species which are tolerant to
the herbicide applied.
• These tolerants plants called ecotypes of prevalent weed species, which are then
called chemo types.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 168
 Bioherbicides

• Weeds are plants that create serious constraints in

agricultural production.
• They compete with crops for water, gases, nutrients, space,
light, and other growth resources, and can become hosts to
pests and diseases.
• The growth factors of crops are challenged by weeds and
cause on average 15 to 66% yield losses in direct-seeded rice,
18 to 65% in maize, 50 to 76% in soybean, and 45 to 71% in
groundnut .
• Crop yield losses due to weeds vary considerably depending
on the crop, weed management strategies, weed
composition, infestation period, and abiotic factors (e.g.,
climate and soil edaphic factors)
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 169
 Cont.
• In agricultural farming, weed management is a key agronomic practice.
Owing to the labor shortage in the agriculture sector, the practice of using
herbicides to control weed densities is increasing around the world .
• Inevitably, the constant use of herbicides on the same field to control
weeds over a prolonged period has been shown to cause herbicide
resistance, residue in crops, ecological imbalance between harmful and
beneficial organisms, and environmental pollution.
• However, time constraint, advances in pest control technology, as well as a
continuous ‘enticement’ from the current agricultural system have
encouraged farmers to keep using conventional herbicides which have
been found to be effective and time- and cost-efficient.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 170

 Cont.

• The application of synthetic herbicides for effective weed control has thus
become indispensable despite the unwelcome side effects.
• Recently, there has been a growing interest in organic fruits, vegetables, dairy
products, and beverages all over the world, particularly in developed
countries .
• Organic products make up a small percentage of the food industry, but their
rapid growth has created considerable interest among consumers and
businessmen, as well as researchers.
• In 2013, there were almost two million produces, and 36% of global organic
farmers are in Asia, followed by Africa (29%) and Europe (17%).

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 171

 Cont.

• Organic product sales have consistently increased over the last decades .
• To cope with the rising demand from consumers, farmers are shifting from
harmful chemical-dependent conventional agriculture to more sustainable
and greener farm practices.
• Such development has led to the advent of more sustainable and
environmentally friendly weed control alternatives.
• The fundamental philosophy of sustainable weed management is based on
the idea of preventing the spread of weeds rather than controlling them
until they have developed and started to cause harm .
• Sustainable weed management comprises a suite of weed management
options such as crop rotation, intercropping, crop competitiveness tillage,
mulching, biological control agents, and green/bioherbicides which
preclude the use of chemical herbicides.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 172
 Cont.

• Biological weed control is a mechanism to suppress the germination

and growth of weed populations to an economic threshold level by
utilizing natural enemies, natural substances, or biotic agents.
• Bioherbicide and conventional herbicide application methods are
similar, although for mycoherbicides the pathogenic fungi are
‘inoculated’ by spraying the pathogens onto target weeds.
• Recently, bioherbicides have been regarded as a crucial weed control
element , albeit not as a total replacement but rather as an
alternative to chemical herbicides .
• Sustainable weed management does not rely on any single weed
management technique, unlike synthetic herbicides in conventional
agriculture; therefore, bioherbicides should be used concurrently with
other weed management techniques to control weeds.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 173
 Bioherbicides
• Bioherbicides consist of microorganisms such as pathogens and other
microbes or phytotoxins derived from microbes, insects, or plant extracts
that act as a natural means of weed control.
• According to Bailey , bioherbicides are naturally originated products
which can be used to control weeds.
• But one must remember that, although bioherbicides comprise nature-
derived compounds, this is not to say they are completely harmless.
• Plants produce natural toxins that could affect the health of non-flora
organisms in the environment or certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi that
could cause health problems to animals and humans .
• Therefore, these natural toxins must be carefully managed to avoid any
unintended impact on crops or beneficial fauna and flora .
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 174
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioherbicides

• The growing public demand for safe ‘green’ products has resulted in many new
environmentally friendly products becoming available for controlling pests,
including weeds.
• Bioherbicides developed from plant extracts, phytopathogenic microorganisms,
or microbial phytotoxins (i.e., mycoherbicides) are a useful approach to weed
control .
• They usually do not possess persistent characteristics—in other words,
bioherbicides do not remain active in the environment for long periods, are less
likely to cause soil and water contamination, and do not cause any adverse
effects on non-target organisms.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 175

 Cont.

• Bioherbicides prepared from allelochemicals are thus negligibly harmful to the bio-
ecosystems and human health .
• Some allelochemicals are soluble in water, making them easier to apply without adding
surfactants .
• The chemical structures of allelochemicals are more environmentally friendly compared
to those of synthetic herbicides.
• Allelochemical bioherbicides typically have short-lived environmental persistence and
low toxicity, and they often employ multiple modes of action, which reduces the risk of
herbicide resistance .
• As a result, allelochemicals serve as good candidates for the development of
bioherbicides, antimicrobial agents, and growth regulators.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 176

 Cont.

• Despite all the benefits associated with bioherbicides in controlling weeds in a

more sustainable manner, there are some drawbacks that make bioherbicide
application less appropriate than the current synthetic herbicides, particularly at
the field scale.
• Bioherbicides have a relatively short environmental half-life—while this is an
ideal attribute for reducing environmental toxicology, an effective herbicide
must persist long enough to exhibit the desired effect on weed species .
• Plants from the same area or from the same taxonomic group do not produce
the same quantity or content of secondary metabolites, and therefore may not
exude the same amount or quality of allelochemicals

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 177

 Plant-Based Bioherbicides
Bioherbicides from Plant Extracts

• Plant extracts, which are traditionally used for medical or nutritional

purposes, may serve as an alternative for developing bioherbicides for
sustainable agricultural practices in weed management.
• Bioherbicides produced from the extracts of natural sources have
shown promising potential against weeds.
• Several plant extract compounds possess a specific inhibiting activity
against weed growth but cause no detrimental injury to crops .
• This may be explained by the difference in sensitivity in the target
enzymes or the existence of specific receptors in weeds that recognize
and react with the compounds

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 178

 Cont.
• Certain plant species have the capacity to secrete
different metabolites known as allelochemicals, such
as alcohols, fatty acids, phenolics, flavonoids,
terpenoids, and steroids, that reduce the
reproduction, growth, and development of adjacent
vegetation, including weed species .
• The phenolic extract of cardoon, (Cynara
cardunculus) possesses phytotoxic properties due to
the presence of an aromatic ring in its composition,
which consists of multiple hydroxyl groups .
• These phytotoxic properties destroy the plasma
membrane, contributing to the initial and
fundamental impacts of oxidative stress.
• Phytotoxic water extracts from S. bicolor are a known
example of bioherbicides with the ability to control
weeds without yield losses
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 179
 Cont.
• The application of sorghum water extract caused a 40%
reduction in the biomass of E. crus-galli, resulting in an
18% rice yield increase .
• In another scenario, the extracts from the leaf, stem,
Mustard
flower, and root of black mustard ( Brassica nigra (L.) K.
Koch. were found to strongly inhibit the germination,
growth, and radicle length of Avena fatua L. . Avena fatua L.
• The inhibitory effect is believed to be mainly due to the
high concentrations of glucosinolates, the bitter sulfur-
containing compounds which are largely present
in Brassica sp.
• These compounds can be enzymatically hydrolyzed to
isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, and nitriles, yielding new
biologically active particles with the potential to reduce
various weeds.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 180
 Bioherbicides from Natural Byproducts
• By products coming from natural sources have Chickweed
also been observed to suppress weed growth.
• Boydston et al. reported that a byproduct of
ethanol production called distillers’ dried
grains with solubles (DDGS) successfully
controlled Chickweed ( Stellaria media L.
and P. annua and inhibited the germination
of Oxalis corniculata L.
• A byproduct named corn gluten meal (CGM),
obtained from the wet-milling corn process,
has long been acknowledged to have natural
herbicidal activity.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 181

 Effects of Plant-Based Bioherbicides on Weed
Growth
Seed Germination
• Seed germination is considered as an important factor in plant
development and productivity.
• During germination, the physiological, biochemical, and morphological
changes are strongly linked with the survival rate of seedlings.
• Plant-based bioherbicides can inhibit seed germination by blocking the
hydrolysis of nutrient reserves and cell division .
• The inhibition of the germination process by plant extracts involves
osmotic effects on imbibition rates, which eventually inhibit germination
and, in particular, cell elongation .
• The phytotoxicity of plant extracts, residue, or mulch may affect weed
germination and growth.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 182
 Cont.
• Plant residues release biochemical substances on the soil that can hinder
seed germination and the seedling growth of weeds.
• Aslani et al. reported that a leaf extract of Tinospora tuberculata Beumee
inhibited the germination and growth of E. crus-galli, although it also
showed phytotoxicity in the crops (O. sativa, Dacus carrota L., L.
sativa, Cucumis sativa L. and S. lycopersicum).
• Likewise, the extracts of S. nigrum, C. album, and Matricaria
chamomilla L. exhibited suppressive action on the germination and
seedling growth of H. vulgare, Phaseolus vulgaris L., Cicer
arietinum L., Zea mays L., Allium cepa L., Capsicum annuum L., S.
lycopersicum, and Triticum aestivum L. .
• The seed germination of C. arietinum, T. aestivum, B. nigra, and Lens
culinaris L. was significantly reduced by the application of Butea
monosperm L.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 183
 Shoot and Root

• Shoot length is one of the significant growth parameters considered for the
growth and development of plants.
• Generally, shoot growth is less sensitive to phytotoxic plant extracts
compared to radicle growth .
• The greater sensitivity of radicle growth to plant extracts is due to the
radicle being the first organ to be exposed to the phytotoxic substances and
having a more permeable tissue than other organs and/or a low mitotic
division in the root apical meristem .
• Moreover, phytotoxic substances can affect genes responsible for the
cellular characterization of radicle tissues and the endoderm, inhibiting their
development.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 184
 Leaf Area
• The leaf area of a plant is an important parameter for assessing growth.
• It is a variable that relates the atmospheric condition of the plant through the process, such as
transpiration, respiration, and photosynthesis.
• It is a fundamentally essential tool used in scientific disciplines such as agronomy, plant
physiology, entomology, ecology, plant pathology, and many others.
• The cuticle is present on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf that line the sub-stomatal
cavities.
• The epidermal surfaces of the plant are covered by a cuticle to protect against water loss and
desiccation.
• Herbicide movement or absorption into leaves depends on the spray retention of a herbicide
on the leaf surface and the diffusion through the cuticle.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 185

 Effects of Plant-Based Bioherbicides on Weed Biochemistry
• One of the important characteristics of plant tissues is their ability to respond to
variable changes in the environment, which allows them to effectively manage and
adjust to the altered ecosystem.
• Abiotic stress conditions, which include drought, heat, cold, salinity, nutrient
deficiency, and oxidative stress, are among the environmental changes that greatly
influence plant productivity, leading to morphological, physiological, and
biochemical responses in plants .
• Oxidative stress is one of the main consequences of biotic and abiotic stresses which
affect physiological and biochemical metabolism in plants; hence, a balanced
amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging through proteins and
antioxidant enzymes is important.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 186

 Cont.
• Many reports have shown that ROS are the key cause of cell damage in
biotic and abiotic stresses.
• These oxidative molecules are typically formed when oxygen is reduced
by 1, 2, or 3 electron transfer to form hydrogen peroxide, superoxide, and
hydroxyl radicles, which are highly reactive species that are cytotoxic to
biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, thereby causing
protein denaturation and lipid peroxidation .
• The plasma membrane is the primary site of cellular and organelle injury
by ROS, since they can react with unsaturated fatty acids to cause the
peroxidation of the lipid bilayer in both cellular and intercellular
structures

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 187

 Cont.
• Cellular damage consequently leads to the leakage of cellular contents,
rapid desiccation, and, inevitably, cell death , while intercellular damage
affects the respiratory activity in mitochondria and causes pigment
breakdown in chloroplasts .
• ROS are equally produced by normal cell metabolism in organelles such as
chloroplasts (photosynthesis), mitochondria (photorespiration), and
peroxisomes (respiration), all powerful generators of ROS .
• Generally, ROS function as an oxidant of proteins and lipids by changing
their functions through the release of single active compounds that
regulate photosynthesis, flower senescence, pollen growth, root
formation, and root hairs

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 188

 Future Direction of Plant-Based
Bioherbicides
• Despite the recent developments in the research of plant-based bioherbicides,
there is still much room for scientists to explore new solutions and improve
existing ones.
• Taking an example in Malaysia, a new bioherbicide product—WeedLock, which
was developed from a plant extract and marketed locally by EntoGenex
Industries Sdn. Bhd. since 2017—is a contact non-selective herbicide that
controls a wide range of weed species.
• Nonetheless, WeedLock is currently only available as a ready-to-use
formulation, making it economically prohibitive for the product to be used in
agricultural settings.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 189

 Cont.

• In addition, studies on the crop selectivity, appropriate formulation, and

mechanism of action of this promising bioherbicide are still lacking.
• Hence, this opens up more opportunities for researchers and industries to
venture into the advancement of this product as an alternative to the current
synthetic herbicides in both the ornamental and agricultural fields.
• Moving forward, more emphasis should be given to advancing the formulation of
bioherbicide active substances, which is a key factor influencing the efficacy of a
bioherbicide product.
• In particular, techniques employing multiple surfactants or nano-formulation
could be considered to enhance the penetration and absorption of active
herbicidal compounds in plants.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 190

 • Knapsack sprayers are used for spraying insecticides
and pesticides on small tress' shrubs and row crops up
to 2.5 m height.
• Features: It consists of a frame on which fuel tank, engine
and hose with cut-off mechanism are mounted.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 191

• A Tractor-mounted sprayer is one
which is fixed on to a tractor.
• The capacity of the tank ranges from
150 to 500 gallons.
• A hydraulic motor attached to the
power take-off shaft drives the pump
of the sprayer.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 192

• Integrated Weed Management
coupled with the use of Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (drones), allows for
Site-Specific Weed Management,
which is a highly efficient methodology
as well as beneficial to the
environment.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 193

 Chapter 6.
Management of major parasitic and invasive weeds of Ethiopia
• Invasive alien species of plant are accidentally or intentionally introduced in to
the country are subsequently escaping from their entry points and their spread is
increasing at alarming rate from time to time.
• Even in the absence of precise figures, it is clear that the spread of invasive alien
species in Ethiopia has increased in the last decade, both in terms of area
coverage and plant density .
• The spread of invasive alien species is neither easy to manage nor easy to
reverse, threatening not only biodiversity but also economic development and
human wellbeing .
• Invasive Alien Species (IAS) refer to plants, animals or microorganisms that are
not native to specific ecosystem and whose introduction threatens biodiversity,
food11/06/2022
security, health or economic development
COMPILED BY GA 194
 Cont.
• Invasive species are recognized as one of the major threats to native species
and ecosystems around the world .
• Encroachment of rangelands by invasive species, reduction of crop yield,
genetic erosion of biodiversity, disruption of water flow, poisoning of livestock,
formation of impenetrable thickets, etc are some of the impacts of invasive
species across a wide range of agro-ecologies.
• They are considered one of the key pressures on world’s biodiversity: altering
ecosystem services and processes, reducing native species abundance and
richness, and decreasing genetic diversity of ecosystems .

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 195

 Cont.
• The spread of invasive plant species in Ethiopia is a growing concern in national
parks, lakes, rivers, power dams, and urban green spaces - causing huge
economic and ecological losses .
• Among these invasive alien species, Priority species are Parthenium
weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), Mesquites (Prosopis juliflora), Water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crasspies), Lantana camara, and Acacia species (Acecia
drepanolobium and Acecia mellifera) are causing major problems in the
country.
• In general, invasive alien species is of a great concern posing serious problems
to development, as well as big threat to biodiversity of the country and their
spread is increasing at alarming rate from time to time.
• Moreover, these species are causing severe damages to natural environment
and habitats leading to the loss of many plant species of important to the
natural heritage of a country in Ethiopia.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 196
 Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus)

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 197

 Mesquites (Prosopis juliflora)

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 198

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 199
 Acacia species (Acecia drepanolobium and Acecia mellifera) 

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 200

 Ecological distribution and socio-economic impacts of parthenium
hysterophorus
• In Ethiopia, it is believed to have been introduced in 1976/77 with army vehicles
from Somalia and has become a serious weed both in arable land and in grazing
lands .
• But in contrast to this, reported that it was introduced into Ethiopia around
1974.
• Others also believed that P. hysterophorus may have also been spread through
the provision of humanitarian emergency food aid.
• For example, this weed was introduced to Africa through grain shipments for
famine relief to Ethiopia.
• The weed was first seen in 1980s near food-aid distribution centers in Ethiopia.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 201

 Cont.

• In the Amhara region, it is estimated that about 37,105 hectares of land is infested with
parthenium.
• It is abundantly found in Gojjam, in south and north Gonder with the potential to spread to
agricultural districts of Metama and Setit Humera.
• Furthermore, the weed is well established in many districts of south, north, and central Tigray.
• In one district alone, Alamata, about 10,000 hectares of the land has been infested with
parthenium.
• In much of the low lands of Wello, Parthenium has become the most dominant weed.
• In these areas, the weed has been reported in 42 districts.
• The weed is also a serious problem in the Regional State of Oromia although there is no actual
survey data on the total area of land infested in the region.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 202

 Cont.
• Currently, Parthenium is spreading at an alarming rate in Eastern Ethiopia; the
central rift valley, and neighboring localities of Afar Region, East Shewa, Arsi, and
Bale and in Southern Ethiopia.
• Taye Tessema, reported that the plant occurred in the towns, usually on
roadsides, and vacant sites and grew only at irregular intervals.
• The introduction in these areas is very recent, probably since 1997 for there had
been no parthenium weed observed in West Shewa region from 1995 – 1996
during which intensive qualitative and quantitative determination of weeds
occurring in these areas took place.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 203

The distribution of Parthenium hysterophorus in Ethiopia can be
shown as follows

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 204

 Cont.
• The invasive nature of P. hysterophorus weed is evidenced from its ability to
form huge mono cultural stands with no other plant in the vicinity.
• P. hysterophorus is known to cause a number of ecological and agricultural
problems, such as the loss of crop productivity, fodder scarcity, biodiversity
depletion and health problems for human beings and livestock.
• The impact of P. hysterophorus weed on livestock production is both direct and
indirect, for it is known to affect grazing lands, animal health and on milk and
meat products.
• According to Shashie, P. hysterophorus has negative impact on quality of meat
that the meat could lose its quality having bitter taste and the soup prepared
with the animal’s meat that was fed with P. hysterophorus is not favored as it
impairs its normal flavor.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 205

 Cont.
• Parthenium weed reduces the productivity and carrying capacity of rangeland
pastures, invading crop and forage pastures, increasing agricultural production
costs and causing environmental damage.
• Range and pasture weeds are plants that reduce livestock production through
poisoning, reducing stock growth (directly or by competition with preferred
plants) or by inflicting mechanical damage.
• Pasture weed is defined as ‘a species whose presence results in a reduced
economic output in a specific system.
• They may be poisonous or unpalatable to livestock or they may be edible, but
provide less or poor quality forage when compared to other forage species.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 206

 Cont.
• P. hysterophorus is a highly interfering in its nature and can cause substantial
production losses up to 40% in India.
•  P. hysterophorus residues have been reported to exert a significant inhibitory
effect on the growth and establishment of crops.
• A significant reduction in the seedling growth (measured in terms of seedling
length and dry weight) was observed when test species were grown in soil
amended with different amount of P. hysterophorus residues.
• The diverse problematic effect of P. hysterophorus do not end up only in its
competitive ability and suppression by releasing the inhibiting chemical
substances to the nearby crop or forage plants, but also it causes prolonged
toxic effect to the soil environment.
• Kohli and Rani , stated that the soil underneath P. hysterophorus got polluted by
the release of allelo chemicals from the weed leading to losses in crop yield.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 207
 Cont.
• P. hysterophorus can cause severe allergies in some people.
• It is known to cause human health problems, either through direct skin contact
with the plant, or the pollen of the plant in the air, like asthma, bronchitis,
dermatitis, and hay fever.
• In Poona (India), one in 60 men is said to be allergic, and so far, there have been
12 deaths attributed to the allergy.
• A study, which was conducted in Bangalore (India), showed that 7.1 percent of
the study population was suffering from allergic rhinitis resulting from exposure
to P. hysterophorus pollen.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 208

 Villagers clearing a dense stand of parthenium weed adopted
from International Parthenium News Number 2, July 2010.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 209

 Ecological distribution and socio-economic impacts of
prosopis juliflora
• The invasive woody plant, P. juliflora, is an evergreen tree
native to North and South America.
• It is the most aggressive weed that cause great devastation
to subtropical grasslands and was thought to have been
introduced to Ethiopia during the establishment of irrigation
water development project at Middle Awash as wind break,
shade and shelter.
• This species is now commonly found in Afar National
Regional State and spreading to Oromia, Amhara, Somali,
and Diredawa regions.
• Nowadays it is repeatedly reported to be one of the invasive
and problematic trees in the Afar region as well as in the
country.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 210
 Cont.
• Many scholars reported that the species has been increasing in density as well
as area coverage from year to year even from month to month.
• Currently, this noxious tree heavily infests most agricultural as well as potential
rangelands in the Afar region .
• The thorny nature of the plant, remarkable ability to withstand adverse
conditions, non-browseable nature, and above all, the nomadic nature of the
people have paved the way to invade most potential lands of the region.
• El-Keblawy, indicated that P. juliflora show a great depressive effect on the
number, density, and frequency of native vegetations.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 211

Distribution map of Prosopis Juliflora in Ethiopia [Rezene et al. 2011].

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 212

 Cont.
• Prosopis dominates sites under sever biotic and edaphic
conditions and the more the prosopis density, the less the
non-prosopis woody vegetation density implying the
advantage of prosopis over the other non-woody species due
to its physiological properties to persist under harsh climatic
conditions, herbivore attack, and probable synecological
manifestations such as competition for resources.
• From indigenous tree species Acacia tortilis, Acacia senegal,
Acacia saligna, Acacia nilotica, Salvadora persica and Balanitis
aegiptica, has been lost due to prosopis invasion.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 213
 Cont.
• In the Ethiopian context, Prosopis juliflora was wrongly introduced in the 1970’s
by Ministry of Agriculture to high quality pasturelands and irrigable areas,
including the Awash River basin in the Afar National Regional State of Northeast
Ethiopia.
• According to the result of both informal and formal surveys introduction of
prosopis to Afar region has affected biodiversity of the area.
• Interviewed community leaders and individuals have the perception that several
plant and animal species have disappeared from the area due to Prosopis.
• According to Senyit et al., 94% of the individuals in the high infestation area and
97% in the medium infestation area believed that considerable number of plant
species have disappeared from the area because of Prosopis.
• Disappearance of grasses from the area is the most disappointing to the local
people as they heavily depend on grazing land for livestock production .
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 214
 Cont.
• There is a general trend of increased rodent population that will in turn reduce
the diversity and population of grass species.
• Rodents such as Merriam kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriam) have been found to
store mesquite seeds in shallow caches under the ground.
• Many of these seeds are never retrieved but instead, germinate and increase the
infestation.
• As rodent population expands, they tend to move their caches farther into the
grassland areas.
• Although rodents kill considerable number of mesquite seedlings by grazing, this
is more than offset by their distribution activities.
• Dubale [30], reported that the population of predators such as Hyena, Fox, Lion,
Snake, and Leopard, which kill livestock and warthog which damage crops, were
increased because of invasion.
11/06/2022 215
COMPILED BY GA
 Cont.
• Prosopis has an effect on human health.
• The most important effect of prosopis on human health is
that its thorns cause itching and bring tetanus.
• Its thorns can even cause blindness.
• There are some distinct environmental impacts of
Prosopis served as a windbreak by preventing movement
of sand-drift and typhoon.
• There is an indication of reducing air temperature and
creating a mild weather.
• It has affected the flora by suppressing grass species and
the natural regeneration of native tree species

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 216

 Cont.

• In an investigation to study the allelopathic effects of prosopis foliage on seed

germination and seedling growth of bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) , showed that
germination was significantly reduced by aqueous leaf extracts in comparison with
distilled water control.
• The reduction increased with increasing extract concentration until germination was
totally inhibited.
• They indicated that mesquite foliage contains water soluble allelochemicals which
could inhibit seed germination and significantly retard the rate of germination and
seedling growth of Bermuda grass.
• Because prosopis tends to establish itself so well, including in arid lands where other
tress fail to survive.
• Indigenous tree and dry season grazing pasture were lost due to invasion of prosopis.
• This is because of its high competitiveness and production of allelochemicals, which
hinder the growth, and development of other species growing in association.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 217
 Cont.
• Prosopis provides more firewood than other species
due to its high biomass production on marginal land.
• The wood is probably the most important product of
woody invasive plant species use either as a fuel
wood or structural material.
• The wood is heavy and hard with excellent fire
generating quality.
• The wood can be commercialized for industrial fuel
wood production, brick furnaces and bakery oven
and grill charcoal for household consumption.
• However, due to bushy character and small size more
labor is required to gather and transport it than other
species.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 218
Fire wood of P. juliflora as income generation adopted

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 219

 Cont.

• Csurhes , also commented that for effective control through coppicing

below ground level, emerging seedlings from the seed in the ground
should be uprooted or killed by spraying chemicals or fire.
• Felling trees and uprooting seedlings from pasturelands using hand
tools and machineries was the attempt made to control Prosopis
invasion in Ethiopia.
• Moreover, Clearing of P. juliflora is carried out by the pastoralist
communities for crop cultivation

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 220

Clearing of P. juliflora by the pastoralist communities for crop cultivation

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 221

 Cont.

• Observation in Ethiopia showed that Prosopis trees stumped 10cm below

the ground had not coppiced over six months after cutting.
• This was thought to be a good option to control Prosopis invasion if it is
specially linked with schemes that facilitates utilization of the harvested
wood for fuelwood or charcoal production.
• Geesing et al., indicated that depth of cutting to prevent coppicing depends
on the size and age of the tree and the density of the vegetation stands.
• They reported that matured trees where there is thick coverage should be
cut 30cm below the ground to remove the bud zone of the root system to
prevent reshooting.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 222

The infestation of water hyacinth in Lake Tana

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 223

 Cont.

• In Ethiopia, water hyacinth poses serious socioeconomic and environmental

problems on human population in areas where people depend on lakes and rivers
for transportation, irrigation, electric generation, fishing, drinking, and meeting
other needs, and is therefore an added constraint on development.
• Water hyacinth was the most abundant aquatic weed on the water bodies and
perceived as one of the most important noxious weeds.
• As reported by different scholars, impact of water hyacinth gets higher whenever
there were mats.
• The most noticeable impacts that were reported by most researchers include:
restricting proper water flow, water loss through excessive evapotranspiration,
interference with fishing, grazing and crop production activities (accessibility to
land water hindered), effect on power generation, increase siltation, flooding,
increase cost of production and effect on native plants
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 224
Dense population of A. drepanolobium trees mixed with A. seyal and
few other species in the Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 225

Encroached condition in Borana rangeland Adopted

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 226

 Cont.

• The cost involved in the management of water hyacinth is high in terms of

economy and also environment.
• Hence, environmentally safe and economically sustainable controls are
necessary to provide long term solutions to weed infestation.
• The reasons for the inefficiency and limited success in responding to infestations
in Ethiopia are lack of an appropriate integrated strategy, lack of awareness to
problem in the infested water bodies, lack of coordination or communication
and efforts to control and manage water hyacinth have been poorly funded.
• The strategy developed to manage water hyacinth dealt with the related social
and technical factors and specific control measures

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 227

 Socio-economic impacts of lantana camara
• Lantana camara was introduced to Ethiopia as an ornamental plant due to its
beautiful aromatic flowers .
• However, because of prolific seed production and easy dispersal, it escaped
cultivation and become a pest in the social, ecological and economic concerns.
• Presently, it has spread almost all over the country, but still it is not much
perceived as a chronic environmental problem, except in few parts of Ethiopia,
such as Oromia and Somali regions.
• Currently, there is little information available on spatial distribution of Lantana
camara invasion and its potential geographic spread.
• Lantana is relatively unpalatable, poisonous to stock, causing loss of appetite,
frequent urination, dehydration, and yellowing of inner mouth and eyes. Hairs
are lost from the skin, the mouth and eyes smell and ulcerate, and animals may
die with one or four weeks.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 228
 Socio-economic impacts of accacia spp
• Native species of Acacia such as A. drepanolobium and A. mellifera are
encroaching on the rangelands of the Borena zone, which is known for its endemic
cattle breeds in the country and the problem is threatening the biodiversity in
rangeland ecosystems.
• According to Tamene (1990), most invading woody species are thorny plants,
particularly the Genus Acacia.
• Acacia drepanolobium, commonly known as a whisthing thorny plant (family
Fabaceae) is one of the indigenous species widely distributed in the Borana
rangelands.
• The species for several reasons is notoriously invading the Borana rangelands and
emerging as an indigenous invasive woody plant in the southern region of Ethiopia

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 229

 Cont.

• Encroachment is excessive and undesirable increase in woody plant

abundance resulting in the suppression of palatable grasses and herbs
by encroaching woody species often unpalatable to domestic livestock.
• Progressive growth in the density of woody plants in dry savanna
beyond a critical density suppresses herbaceous plant production and
decline range productivity, mainly due to severe competition for
available soil and water.
• It is the major form of rangeland degradation in Borana, characterized
by invasion of undesirable woody species and unpalatable forbs, losses
of grass layer and increased soil erosion

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 230

 Cont.
• Invasive plant species can directly or indirectly affect the food security of local
residents and increase vulnerability to hazards and risks.
• In areas where they spread, invasive species can destroy natural pasture, displace
native trees, and reduce grazing potential of rangelands.
• Invasive species of Plants like water hyacinth also block water ways for irrigation,
navigation, electricity generation, and livestock watering.
• Ecologically, benthic and littoral diversity is reduced because of dense and
impenetrable mats of water hyacinth .
• Some species of invasive plants pose health risks to livestock and humans in the
invaded areas by impairing mobility or causing injuries.
• These species can affect crop production, animal husbandry, human health and
biodiversity.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 231

 Weed species diversity, distribution and infestation
trend in small scale irrigated vegetable production
area of mid-rift-valley of Ethiopia
• Mid rift valley of east Shewa, Ethiopia is among the potential
commercial irrigated intensive vegetable production areas supplying a
variety of vegetables to every corners of the country.
• Onion, tomato, maize, kale, hot pepper, watermelon, green bean and
head cabbage are among the major vegetable crops widely produced
for national and local markets.
• Okra, cucurbit and sweet melon are also cultivated on small plots.
This created a potential job opportunity that result in drifting of job
seekers to the area from all parts of the country.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 232

 Cont.

• The gradual worsening of crop pests (disease, insect and weed) is becoming the
major bottlenecks of vegetable production and productivity in mid rift valley of
Ethiopia.
• The same author explained as chemical pesticides used to protect pests are
predominantly exalting the production cost.
• Producers have been applying high shower of pesticides with high frequency and
above the recommended dose to overcome the problem; which resulted in
accelerated prevalence and severity of pests.
• This came from application of pesticides without adequate knowledge of the pest
and the identity of the pesticide.
•  Furthermore the practice resulted in ineffective pest control using pesticide due to
development of resistance and decimated natural controlling factors.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 233
 Cont.

• Although most farmers give less concern for the negative impact that weeds
impose on their crop, study results indicated as weeds share up to 45% of
the total annual losses of agricultural products.
• Currently weeds are playing significant role in making pest problems very
complex.
• Weeds can play a beneficial role by harboring insect natural enemies and
pollinators; however the consequences resulting from weeds harboring crop
pests largely outweighs the benefits they potentially provide.
• Palumbo noted that weed species found in and around vegetable crops can
serve as host plants to many disease and insect pests that can later infest
nearby crops.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 234
 Diversity of weeds

• With the assessment made in irrigated farms of five districts of east Shewa zone
(Adami Tullu, Dugda, Liben Chukala, Bora and Lume) 78 weed species
comprised in 27plant families were identified.
• The study result was in line with Eshetu Bekele et al. investigation that the weed
species were composed of a wide range of perennial and annual grasses and
broad leaved weeds, sedges, parasitic and invasive weed species. 
• Asteraceae (15spp.), Poaceae (14spp.), Solonaceae (6spp.), Chenopodaceae (5
spp.), Amarantaceae (5spp.) and Fabaceae (5spp.) were found the 1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th abundant weed families respectively and share 64% of the
total species of the study area in number.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 235

 Cont.

• Weeds in family Fabaceae were found richer

than Polygonaceae, Brassicaceae and Convolvulaceae in species
number but got lesser area coverage.
• Nicandra physaloides (RF=73%), Galinsoga
parviflora (RF=64%), Cyperus rotundus (RF=64%), Xanthium
strumarium (RF=54%), Amaranthus hybridus (RF=56%), Setaria
verticilata (RF=50%), Datura stramonium (RF=50%), Argemone
mexicana (RF=43%), Erucastrumabyssinicum (RF=45%), and Xanthium
spinosum (RF=43%) were found among the weeds species frequently
observed or widely distributed within the study area. 

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 236

 Cont.

• Weed species nationally categorized as troublesome noxious weeds and

highly constraining agriculture (Digitaria abyssinica, Cynodon spp., Setaria
vericillata, Sorghum arundinaceum, Ageratum conzoides,
Amaranthus spp., Argemone mexicana, Bidens pilosa, Parthenium
hysterophorus, Commelina spp. 
• Convolvolus arvensis, Datura stramonium, Flaveria trinervia, Galinsoga
parviflora and Guizota scabra)10 were identified as the major weeds of the
study area. Nicandira physaloides, Xanthium strumarium,
Erucastrumabyssinicum, Xanthium spinosum, Portulaca oleracea, Flaveria
trinervia, Chenopodium spp., Eragrostis spp., and Launaeaintybacea were
among weed species equally important in the area with the weed species
nationally categorized as problematic weeds; but not yet got attention.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 237
 Cont.

• The dominant weeds of the study district and common irrigation sites
were identified.
• In Adami Tulu district Amaranthus hybridus, Nicandra physaloides,
Galinsoga parviflora, Flaveria trinervia and Galinsoga parviflora were
found dominant at Haleku, Golba, Abne Germama, Edo Gojola and Elka
Chelemo irrigation sites respectively during 2013 growing season.
• During 2015 growing season, Nicandra physaloides was found over
dominated Amaranthus hybridus, at Haleku, Parthenium
hysterophorus was found over dominated Galinsoga
parviflora and Flaveria trinervia over dominated Galinsoga parviflora at
Abne Germama and Elka Chelemo respectively.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 238
 Factors driving weed invasion in the area
• Limited use of crop rotation, limited use of herbicide in vegetable
fields, unavailability of species specific herbicides and poor field
sanitation as a whole were observed as a driving force for the ever
expansion of weed invasion in the area.
• The fields were made to be visited by livestock after harvest and only
those preferable weeds were grazed and those unpalatable were left
on field and seed to their potential till the field required for the other
round cultivation.
• Herbicides are only adopted for controlling broad leaved weeds in
cereals (Teff and wheat).
• No tradition of field sanitation after the crop has been harvested until
the land needed for another round planting.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 239
 Cont.

• Weeds simply grow and bear their seed using the residual moisture and
fertilizer.
• Weed seeds germination and growth is year round in irrigated
vegetable production areas.
• In tomato field specifically, weeding activity terminated immediately
after flowering due to the assumption that weeding aggravates disease
severity in the field.
• Till the final harvest the field totally covered by the weed.
• After harvest the field left abandoned and the weeds complete their
lifecycle and shed their seed to the soil.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 240
 Weeds of considerable cost implications
• Information obtained through personal
discussion with some farmers elucidated that
some weeds species inevitably incur extra
costs in vegetable farms.
• spiny amaranth ( Amaranthus spinosus ) and
spiny cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum) are
among weeds need special negotiation for
extra payment of up to 50-70% from the
usual labor cost rate.
• Laborers are not willing to work fields
infested with these two special weeds in
contractual agreement unless with daily basis
work.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 241
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 242
• The other weed with considerable cost
implication due to its fast growth rate was
little hogweed (Portulaca oleracea). 
• As information obtained from farmers
dictated, field infested with Portulaca
oleracea demand regular weeding as
compared to the other weeds.

11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 243

 Cont.  Orobanche spp
• Among the weed species recorded, two parasitic weeds;
namely Orobanche spp and Cuscuta spp. were found
and Cuscuta spp.
prominent.
• Orobanche weed was found attached mainly on tomato
and some alternative host weeds. 
• Cuscuta weed was previously not found attached on
vegetable crops rather on border weeds like Xanthium
strumarium and Hypoestes forskaolii, but during 2015 GC
assessment it was found invading onion of many farmers.
• Information from field visit and raised on discussion
confirmed that no action has been taken to limit invasion
of Orobanche weed due to the assumption that hand
pulling could cause damage on root zone of the host and
encourage multiplication of parasite weed Orobanche.
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 244
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 245
 Thank you!!!
So much!!!
11/06/2022 COMPILED BY GA 246