Occupational Health and Safety

Dr. MÜGE ENSARİ ÖZAY

Physical hazards:
The thermal environment 1: thermal balance and instrumentation
The thermal environment 2: assessment of the thermal environment
The thermal environment 3: assessment of cold workplaces
The thermal environment 4: thermal comfort
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Heat stress
Heat stress occurs when the body’s means of controlling internal
temperature starts to fail.
Operations involving high air temperatures, radiant heat sources, high
humidity or strenuous physical activities have a high potential for
inducing heat stress.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Heat balance
• The body core temperature must be regulated to remain typically at 37 ± 0.5 ° C. Below 31 ° C
leads to loss of consciousness and death.
Above 43 ° C leads to failure of the thermoregulation mechanism

• The heat balance is affected by work performed and the rate of change
in the store of heat in the body.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Heat balance
• Heat balance between the human body and its surroundings can be
expressed as the equation
M=±K±C±R–E
where M is the rate of metabolic heat production (see Table 1.3),
K , C , and R are gain or loss of heat by conduction, convection, and radiation, respectively, and
E is the evaporative heat loss from
skin and respiratory tract.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Health effects

• Exposure to high temperature: heat stroke, heat syncope, heat exhaustion, heat fatigue and
prickly heat, cataract, susceptibility to other disease (e.g. cardiovascular)

• Exposure to low temperature: hypothermia is a condition of low core temperature, and is clinically
defi ned as a deep body temperature below 35 ° C.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Occupations at risk
Work activities that may lead to heat stress include:
 handling molten metal,
 metal refining,
 glass-making,
 boiler and furnace maintenance,
 mining and tunnelling, firefighting, and
 outdoor work in hot climates.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Parameters for heat stress
The following four environmental parameters must be assessed:
• air temperature
• air velocity
• radiant temperature
• relative humidity.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Instruments for heat stress
Instruments for measuring individual environmental parameters include:
• Dry bulb thermometers or electric thermometers: measure air temperature
• Wet bulb thermometer: dry bulb covered in a clean cotton wick wetted with distilled water
• Psychrometers: consist of wet and dry bulb thermometer mounted in a frame. There are two
types—the sling and the aspirated. Used to determine the relative humidity
• Globe thermometer (mercury-in-glass thermometer with its bulb in the centre of a matt black
sphere or globe): used to measure radiant temperature
• Kata thermometer: used for measuring air velocities less than 0.5m/s.
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Integrating electronic heat stress monitors
• Static instruments: provide a single value for wet
bulb globe temperatures (WBGT) and air velocities
(Fig. 1.2)
 Thermal environment 1: thermal balance and
instrumentation
Integrating electronic heat stress monitors
• Personal heat stress monitors (Fig. 1.3): signals from various sensors including
heart rate and temperature fed into a data logger, which calculates a strain index.
The monitor can be set for different age ranges and clothing. An audible alarm,
indicating if preset warning and action levels are exceeded, is usually fitted.
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
A number of heat stress indices have been developed for different industries, with
the aim of preventing the deep body temperature from exceeding 38 ° C.
Classification of heat stress indices
Empirical and direct indices
Wet bulb temperature (WB), effective temperature (ET), corrected effective
temperature (CET), WBGT.
Analytical indices
Required sweat rate, heat stress index, predicted 4h sweat rate.
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
Wet bulb globe temperature
The WBGT is the most widely accepted index for assessment of heat in industry and
published as British Standard BS EN 27243 and also in the ACGIH threshold limits
values.
WBGT (expressed in temperature units) is calculated as follows:
For indoor use, WBGT = 0.7 WB + 0.3 GT
For outdoor use, WBGT = 0.7 WB + 0.2 GT + 0.1 DB
where WB is natural wet bulb temperature); GT is the globe thermometer
temperature (°C), and DB is the dry bulb temperature (°C).
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
Wet bulb globe temperature
Table 1.4 shows reference values of WBGT
related to a maximum rectal temperature
of 38°C for different metabolic rates and
state of acclimatization.
The reference values assume the individual
is fi t, normally clothed with adequate
water and salt intake.
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
Example
In a foundry with still air, a worker is acclimatized and estimated to be working at
240W/m 2 . Air temperature = 25°C, globe temperature = 27°C, natural wet bulb =
18°C,
WBGT = 0.7(18) + 0.3(27) = 20.7
The reference WBGT value of 25°C for this scenario is not exceeded, i.e. heat stress
in not a risk in this environment.
When the WBGT reference values are exceeded a more accurate heat stress
estimate can be obtained using, for example, the required sweat rate (BS
EN12515). When performing physiological monitoring (core temperature, heart
rate, sweat rat, etc.) use standard ISO 9886.
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
Acclimatization
Acclimatization is a set of physiological adaptations.
Full heat acclimatization requires up to 3wks of physical activity under the heat
stress conditions expected in the work environment.
During acclimatization, the ability of the body to sweat is increased and amount of
sweat produced is also increased.
Salt content of sweat declines avoiding sodium defi ciency.
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
Risk control: reducing heat strain
• Planning of work: e.g. maintenance work
• Modifying the environment: reduce process heat, improve ventilation,
evaporative cooling, shield radiant heat sources
• Worker: medical pre-selection, acclimatization, report symptoms
• Managerial: monitor heat stress conditions, develop work–rest
regimes, training and supervision, selection of appropriate controls
• Protective clothing: ice-cooled jackets, air-cooled suits.
 Thermal environment 2: Assessment of
the thermal environment
Relevant legislation
• Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations (1992)
• Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1999).
Further information
• American Conference of Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) (2011). Threshold limit values for chemical
substances and physical agents and biological exposure indices. ACGIH, Cincinnati.
• British Occupational Hygiene Society (BOHS) (1996). The Thermal Environment, BOHS Technical
Guide No.12, 2nd edn. BOHS, Derby.
• Parsons KC (2003). Human thermal environment, 2nd edn. Taylor & Francis, London.
• Youle A (2005). The thermal environment. In: Harrington JM, Gardener K, eds, Occupational
Hygiene, 3rd edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford. Available at: M
http://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/index.htm indices
 Thermal environment 3: Assessment of
cold workplaces
Health effects and occupations
• The 1st physiological responses to cold exposure are peripheral vasoconstriction
and increase in metabolic heat production by shivering
• Effects of cold include hypothermia (below 35°C), localized tissue damage, and
adverse effects on performance at work. Outdoor (construction,
telecommunications, maintenance of electrical power lines, agricultural and
forestry, fi shing industry), indoor (cold stores, meat processing) also inland and
offshore work.
 Thermal environment 3: Assessment of
cold workplaces
Risk assessment
• ISO 1574 (2008) provides methodology and practical tool for assessing and managing cold risk in
the workplace. It includes checklists and questionnaires to identify individuals at risk
• The main climate factors for cold stress are air temperature and air speed. As the difference
between skin and ambient temperature increases and/or the air speed increases, the rate of heat
loss from exposed skin increases
• A wind chill index (equivalent chill temperature) can be calculated has for different combinations
of air temperature and speed (see b p. 37, Calculating the Wind Chill Index and interpretation of
values)
• The equivalent chill temperature is used when estimating the combined cooling effect of wind and
low air temperature on exposed skin or when determining clothing insulation requirements to
maintain core temperature above 36°C. The model is based on exposed flesh, but is a useful first
approximation of cold stress.
 Thermal environment 3: Assessment of
cold workplaces
Risk control
• For exposed skin, continuous exposure should not be permitted when the equivalent chill
temperature is –32°C.
• If air temperature falls below 16°C for sedentary, 4°C for light, or –7°C for moderate work, gloves
should be used by workers
• If fine work is performed with bare hands for more than 20min in an environment below 16°C,
provision should be made to keep hands warm
• Total body protection is required if work is performed in an environment at or below 4°C
 Thermal environment 3: Assessment of
cold workplaces
Risk control
• The ACGIH recommends that protective measures should be introduced when air temperature is
less than 5°C.
The equation shown here can be used to estimate the amount of clothing insulation (1 clo) required
for a specifi c task in a given air temperature ( T in °C) and metabolic rate ( M in W):
clo = 11.5(33 – T)/M
• When cold surfaces below –7°C are within reach, a warning should be given to prevent
inadvertent contact with bare hands.
 Thermal environment 3: Assessment of
cold workplaces
Calculating the Wind Chill Index and interpretation of values
• The Wind Chill Index (Twc) can be calculated using the equation:
Twc = 13.12 + 0.6215.Ta –11.37.v0.16 + 0.3965.Ta.v0.16
where T a is the air temperature (°C) and V air speed (km/h).
Example
If the dry temperature is – 22° C at 16 km/h then the wind chill factor = – 32°C
• Twc values (°C)
–10 to –24 (uncomfortably cold),
–25 to –34 (verycold, risk of skin freezing),
–35 to –59 (exposed skin may freeze within 10min),
below –60 (exposed skin may freeze in 2min).
 Thermal environment 3: Assessment of
cold workplaces
Relevant legislation
• Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations (1992)
• Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1999).
Further information
• ISO 15743 (2008). Ergonomics of the thermal environment—Cold workplaces—Risk assessment
and management .
• ISO 11079 (2007). Evaluation of the thermal environment—Determination of required clothing
insulation (IREQ) .
• BS EN 511 (2006). Protective gloves against cold .
 Thermal environment 4: Thermal
comfort
Definition
• Thermal comfort describes the person’s psychological state of mind and is defi ned as ‘that
condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the surrounding thermal environment’ (BS EN
ISO 7730).

• Thermal comfort depends on a range of environmental (air temperature, humidity, air movement,
and radiant heat) and personal factors (clothing insulation and metabolic heat). In workplaces,
thermal discomfort may only occur when heating ventilation and air conditioning systems either
break down or do not work as intended.

• Thermal comfort can affect overall morale. Complaints may increase and productivity may fall.
Most problems arise when individuals are not able to adapt to their work environment. Localized
discomfort can also occur, e.g. due to vertical temperature gradients.
 Thermal environment 4: Thermal
comfort
Assessment of thermal comfort
• International Standards (BS EN ISO 7730 and BS EN ISO 10551) provide methods for predicting the
general thermal sensation and degree of discomfort (thermal dissatisfaction) in indoor
environments. The methods for the objective assessment of the thermal environment included in
these standards are based on those proposed by Fanger (1970) 1
• Thermal comfort is determined using calculations of predicted mean vote (PMV) and predicted
percentage dissatisfi ed (PPD)
• The PPD establishes a quantitative prediction of the percentage of thermally dissatisfied people,
i.e. those who will vote hot, warm, cool, or cold on the 7-point thermal sensation scale
• The 7-point thermal sensation scale can also be used to assess and compare the actual and
desired thermal sensations.
 Thermal environment 4: Thermal
comfort
Assessment of thermal comfort
The PMV is an index that predicts the mean value of the votes of a large group of persons on the 7-
point thermal sensation scale (Table 1.5) and can be calculated for different metabolic rates, air
temperature, air velocity, clothing insulation, and air humidity.
Combinations of these parameters, which on average will provide a thermally neutral sensation, can
be determined
 Thermal environment 4: Thermal
comfort
Controlling the thermal environment
A combination of engineering and administrative are required:
• Work planning: location of work station and scheduling of work and breaks
• Assess the type of heating system (hot air based, combined heat and ventilation, under fl oor
heating, overhead heating)
• Air movement: consider the type and location of fan(s), reduce draft discomfort by directing
ventilation or air movement
• Air conditioning: determine whether the unit controls air movement and humidity as well
lowering air temperature. Air distribution from units should be uniform throughout the workplace
 Thermal environment 4: Thermal
comfort
Controlling the thermal environment
• Assess the need for thermal insulation: insulation type present and its effectiveness
• Use mechanical aids for physically demanding jobs
• Allow workers to make adaptation: clothing, temperature, etc.
• Monitor the environment thermal conditions and staff who have special requirements, e.g.
pregnancy.
 Thermal environment 4: Thermal
comfort
Relevant legislation
• Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations (1992).
• Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1999).
Further information
• BS EN ISO 7730 (2005). Ergonomic of the thermal environment—analytical determination and
interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal
comfort criteria .
• BS EN ISO 10551 (2001). Ergonomics of the thermal environment—assessment of the infl uence of
thethermal environment using subjective judgment scales.
• ASHRAE (1992). Standard 55—thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy . ASHRAE
Inc., Atlanta.
• Fanger PO (1970). Thermal comfort . Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen.
Thank you

Safety first…