DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

(GSU 07103)
BACHELOR I
BAC I, BPLM I, BMPR I & BPSAF I
DR. Bahati Shagama (PhD)
 DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS & THEORIES

• Development is a multifaceted concepts which have

different meaning for different people or countries.

• Different countries have different priorities in their

development policies. There is no universal acceptable

definition of what exactly development mean.

• In most cases, development is related to growth from one

stage to another, therefore, development is treated as a

almost a synonym for improvement from one stage to

another.
• In the post-WW period, devt. was usually

defined in terms of economic growth focuses

on the Growth National Products (GNP).
• It was argued that economic growth would lead

to a trickle-down effect, meaning that

economic growth was a necessary conditions
and requirement for social improvement.
• Development as economic growth too often emphasize

commodity output as opposed to people. However, there

is differences between human development and economic

growth
The modern scholars of development, criticize the
idea of economic growth as direct related to
development.

i) They focus on social indicators such as welfare

and poverty which result to create UN’s Human
Development Index (HDI) include life expectancy,
education and income.
ii) They argue that development is not purely an
economic phenomenon but rather a
multidimensional.

iii) United Nation (UN) emphasis on “Human

Development” measured by life expectancy, adult
literacy, access to education as well as people’s
average income
iv) Human development is the End- economic
growth as Means. Economic growth by increasing
a nation’s total wealth and enhance its potential for
reducing poverty and other social problems.

Therefore, the govt. have to ensure balance btn

economic growth and human development to
ensure sustainable devt.
 Conditions for enabling economic growth
incudes:
 People knowledge and skills (human capital)

 Efficient use of natural resources i.e land, mines etc.

 Stable government and good governance

 Sound Economic Policies

 Conditions for enabling human development
includes:
 Good health services

 Education services

 Employment opportunities

 Democracy and participation

 Environment protection
• Kholi (2005) provide for political dimension of

development by focusing on democratization

process. The country will only be considered as
develop based on the extent it provide
participation and involvement of citizens as a
major stakeholders in development process.
OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
According to Todaro and Smith (2005) provide for major
three (3) objectives of development as follows:
 Raising people’s living levels i.e. incomes and
consumption food, shelters, health services and
education.
 Creating condition conducive to the growth of people’s
self-esteem through the establishment of social, political
and economic which promote human dignity and respect.
 Increase people’s freedom to choose by enlarging the
range of their choices variables. Freedom of movement,
trade, association, political participation
DISTINCTION BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND
UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Features which distinguish developed and underdeveloped
countries:

1. Independent and prosperous countries are known as

Developed Countries. The countries which are facing the
beginning of industrialization are called DC

2. Developed Countries have a high per capita income and GDP

as compared to Developing Countries.

3. In Developed Countries the literacy rate is high,
but in Developing Countries illiteracy rate is high.

4. Developed Countries have good infrastructure

and a better environment in terms of health and
safety, which are absent in Developing Countries.

5. Developed Countries generate revenue from the

industrial sector. While, Developing Countries
generate revenue from the service sector.
6. In developed countries, the standard of living of people
is high, which is moderate in developing countries.

7. Resources are effectively and efficiently utilized in

developed countries. While, proper utilization of
resources is not done in developing countries.

8. In developed countries, the birth rate and death rate are

low, whereas in developing countries both the rates are
high.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
Definition:
A theory is a set of interrelated statement that provide an
explanation for chain of invents, it is a way to binding
together a multitude of fact so that may comprehend them
all at once (Kelly, 1955).

A theory serve as a guide to certain action by formulating a

theory, one attempt to make sense of experiences.
Definition cont.…
• A theory as interconnected logical system of concepts that

provide a framework for organizing, understanding and

observation of social facts. Theories allows us to understand
and predict the behaviour of some aspects of the world.
• In discussing development, there are various theories that

try to explain the ways society develop from one stage to

another. These theories provides for the strategies to be
used to improve economic situation of a given countries.
There are three (3) major theories of development namely:
i) Modernization Theory
ii) Dependency Theory

iii) Marxist Theory

MODERNIZATION THEORY
It is a transformational process which enables traditional
societies to become modern societies. This theory can be
related to the theory of evolution that humanity is moving
from the primitive to more advanced state.

1) Articulate problem of devt in term of the need to

transform the backward “traditional” of the 3rd World
Countries economy into modern economy. i.e.
encourage import substitution, foreign aids, technology
and others.
2) Low level of new capital formation in most of 3rd world

countries, they requires massive capital investment

through foreign aid for them to develop.

3) theory advocate that the source of underdevelopment in

poor countries is internally oriented that external ones.

These include corruptions, good governance and
political instability.
4) Modernization is associated with the development aid
from developed countries. This idea borrowed from the
Marshal Plan of the post World War II. The Programs
such as Structure Adjustment Program (SAPs),
Millennium Development Goal (MDGs), PSRP, LGRP
are the product of modernization theory.

5) Modernization theory is an irreversible process, once

started modernization cannot be stopped.

6) It is evolutionary change and not revolutionary change

as dependency theory. It will take years and generation
to complete.
NURKE’S VICIOUS CIRCLE OF POVERTY
• The vicious circle of poverty introduced by Prof. Ragnar
Nurkes, in 1952 analyze the cycle of poverty and possible
way to break the deadlock. According to poor “the
country is poor because is poor”.
i. Vicious Circle it is a situation in which one problem
causes another problems that then cause the first
again, so that the whole process continue to be
repeated.
ii. According to Ragnar poor countries will never
developed without the assistance of the developed
countries. They have to get resource from outside.
iii. He suggest that poor countries invest in human capital
iv. Transfer of technology from developed countries to
poor countries is essential.
v. A country/society in LDC characterized with low
income, and therefore, due to low income have both
low level of saving and level of consumption.
vi. The low level of savings mean that the country
possess low level of investment due to lack of capital
vii. Low investment in turn means little ability of that
country to expand to its productive capacity.
 HOW TO BREAK VICIOUS POVERTY
CYCLE
1. Proper use of Natural Resource: Proper use of
natural resource increase the production and per capital
income
2. Establish for Self Reliance Policy to reduce
dependency from developed nations
3. Encourage private sector development: private sector
will increase the rate of investment
4. Application of capital must be made to a wide range of
different industries
5. Increase saving: the government of less developing
countries should provide incentives to encourage the
rate of saving.
6. Reduction of Import: The country should produce
substitute in order the country to save foreign
exchange.
7. Invest in Technology
8. Control Population in order to balance the population
and available natural resources.
 ROSTOWIAN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
• The theory introduced by Walt Rostow in 1960s who
postulate various stage of development with his famous
book “The Stage of Economic Growth”. Rostow argued
that for any country to achieve economic growth must
pass through five (5) stages.
1. Traditional Society Stage:
• The first stage is known as traditional society which is
associated with the country that has not yet developed.

Subsistence economy
Existence of barter
High level of agriculture and labour intensive
Concentration of political power in the hand of land
owners
2. Pre-conditions for Take-off
This is second stage of development as proposed by
Rostow
Development of mining industry
Increase in capital use in agriculture
Necessity of external funding
Improve transport sector
Shift from agrarian to industrial
3. Take Off Stage:
• Sometime is commonly known as economic take off
Stage. It characterized by dynamic economic growth.
self-sustained economic growth
Industrialization increase
Increase economy switch from agriculture to
manufacturing.
Decline in the number of employees in agriculture sector
Some regional growth
• Note: Once the country take off will take as long as fifty
(50) years to hundred (100) years to rich to maturity as it
was the case of industrial revolution.

4) Drive to Maturity Stage:

• This stage of development concerned with the extension
of modern technology over other sectors in the
economy/society.
4. Drive to Maturity Stage
Increase in level of technology utilised.
Economy diversifies into new areas and become self-
sustain
Economy find its place in the international economy
(imported good began to be produce locally. i.e. cars
Less reliance on import much emphasis in export
5. High Mass Consumption Stage:
• The leading sector in the society shift toward durable
consumer goods and services. it is characterized by
 High mass consumption of consumer durables
 Increase in employment in the service sectors
 Highly increased in per capital income
 Society is able to choose between concentrating on
military and security issue. A good example is USA
Equality in welfare issues or developing luxuries for its
upper class
 CRITIQUE TO ROSTOW STAGES THEORY
 The theory failed to emphasize that developing countries
are politically and economically diverse. They can’t
follow similar stage in development.
 Wealthy nation exploit the poor countries and remain
them underdevelopment.
 The theory focus only on internal causes of
underdevelopment and reject external factors
 The theory is criticized for failing to consider the poor as
center peace in poverty reduction initiatives.
 Theory failed to recognize the creativity and initiative of
the African
 DEPENDENCY THEORY
• Dependency theory is body of social science theories, it
contends that resources flow from a periphery of poor and
underdeveloped countries to a core of wealthy states.
 TYPES OF DEPENDENCY
There is major two (2) main stream of dependency theory.

The Structuralism Stream:

The stream argued that peripheral – central relation is a
major causes of underdevelopment in poor countries.

 Terms of trade for poor countries, relative to the

developed countries had deteriorated over time (Unequal
terms of trade)
 world system, poor countries become only raw material
producer of cotton, sisal, coffee, therefore, provide inputs
for advanced nation.
 Singer – Prebisch an Argentinian economist (UNCLA)
Suggest that underdeveloped nation must employ some
degree of protectionism in trade if they were to inter a
self sustaining development path.
They advocated for regional integrations and unity among
poor countries.
 They encourage for Import Substitution Industrialization
(ISI) and not a trade and export orientation.
 The theory focuses on the “Centre – Periphery”/North –
South relationships. It state that poor states are
impoverished and rich states are enriched by the way
poor states are integrated in the world system.

 They argued that the major cause of underdevelopment

is external oriented. It ignores internal factors such as
corruption, unproductive land, concentration of wealth,
poor political system.
The Marxian Theory:
This stream includes Gunda Frank, Baran, Swezy and
others. Paul Baran in 1957 wrote a book “The Political
Economy of Growth”.

They argued that development and underdevelopment

are two aspects of economic structure.

They show the link between the economy and power, the
way international economy influence or constrained the
development process of National economy.
It argued that it is difficult for wealth nations to develop
poor nations, therefore underdeveloped nations would
have to create their own economic path (Regional
Integrations)

Monopoly capitalism had vested interest in maintaining

backwardness and dependence in the periphery
 The Basic Premises of Dependency Theory
 Poor national provide natural resources & cheap labour
to strong states. Poor nation are in disadvantage in their
market interact with wealth nations.

 Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of

dependence by various means such as financial aids,
technological assistances, scholarships, foreign capital
flow and others.

 Wealthy nations actively counter all attempts made by

dependent nations to resist their influence by means of
Force/war (USA invade Iraq), Economic sanction (Libya)
Underdevt is a condition different from undevt. Undevt
refers to the condition in which resources are not being
used. Underdvt refers to the situation in which resources
are being used but in a way benefit the dominant states
and not the poor.
The theory argued that poor countries are not poor b’se
they lagged behind the scientific transformation but they
are poor b’se were coercively integrated into the capitalist
economic system.
Dependency relationship maintained through a complex
network of political, cultural and economic means and
sometimes military measures.
CRITICISM OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
 The theory ignore internal factors for underdevelopment
such as corruption, political instability and others
 To improve domestic market by substituting imported
manufactured goods with domestic one.
 The countries on the periphery of development are not
destined to stagnation. So dependency theory is an
incomplete & inaccurate description of the social-
economic condition of LDCs.
 There are many dependent countries on the periphery
which adopted modernization change their economic
structure and achieve rapid economic development.
Example, India, North Korea, Taiwan
 Neo-Classical Theory
• The neoclassical theory represents a modification of
modernization theory. However, in contrast to
modernization theory, neoclassical theorists see devt
as the outcome not of strategic state condition.
• The theory of Neo-classical devt became popular in
the 1980s with the emergency of conservative
governments throughout Western Europe and the
United States (Todaro, 2002). Furthermore, the
failure of so many LDCs to achieve higher stds of
living led economists to develop new theories about
growth.
• Neoclassical theory is also known as Market
Fundamentalism or neo liberal perspective.
According to this theory economic growth is directly
related to free trade and countries should follow
policies of deregulation, privatization, and
liberalization in order to achieve desired economic
growth (Addison, 2000).
• Neoclassical emphasizes the beneficial role of free
markets, open economies and the privatization of
the inefficient public enterprises.
• Its recommended strategy for devt is to free markets
from state control and regulation, so that capital,
goods and services can have total freedom of
movement and there can be greater openness to
international trade.
• This is the basic blueprint for what has been termed
good governance. The notion of good governance has
its requirements
• According to Neoliberal thought, good governance
requires freeing the market from the state control
and regulations; reducing government expenditures
for social services like education and healthcare;
maintaining roads, bridges, the water supply, and
so forth; selling state –owned entreprises, goods and
services (including banks, key industries, railroads,
toll highways, electricity, schools and hospitals) to
private investors.
Challenges/weaknesses of the Theory.
1. Many LDC economies are so different in structure
and organization from their Western counterparts
2. LDCs, there are many externalities of production
and consumption that may or may not exist in
developed economies to the same degree.
3. The core of the neoclassical is reliance on the
market. But some markets do not operate on the
same scale in LDCs, nor do they display the same
characteristics.
• Another major limit of neoclassical theory is their
focus on economic growth first, followed by human
development.
Strength/usefulness of the Theory.
• Despite the presented challenges about the theory, but the
theory is still useful in the following ways:
1. The theory has successful shown the role of the state (govt)
in the World of free market economy.
2. The theory managed to identify and realize the role of private
sectors in achieving quick economic growth of any country. 
3. The theory also encourage competition among the
entreprises in the global market through international trade.
4. Furthermore, the theory puts emphasis on conducive
environment that can encourage business growth and
prosperity of the investors.
Sustainable Development Theory
• Literally, sustainable development (SD) simply
means “devt that can be continued either
indefinitely or for the given time period (Dernbach,
1998).
• Brundtland Commission Report (Schaefer & Crane,
2005) the report defines SD as “devt that meets the
needs of the current generation without
compromising the ability of the future generation to
meet their own needs”.
• It provides mechanism through which society can
interact with the environment while not risking
damaging the resources for the future.
• SD calls on the need to move away from harmful
socio-economic activities and rather engage in
activities with positive environmental, economic and
social impacts.
Criticism of the Theory.
1. The theory encourages the current generation to utilize
the available resources without compromising the
future generation needs ignoring the fact that many
people are struggling to meet their needs thus, it’s hard
for them to start thinking about the next generation. 
2. Population increases geometrically, while food
production increases arithmetically.
3. The theory does not consider the absolute poverty
situation among people. 
4. Over exploitation of the available resources is due to
technological advancement and industrial demands. 
• Strength/usefulness of the Theory.

1. The theory promotes resources conservation

(mitigating and adapting to climate change)
2. The theory put into consideration the next
generation thus help to ensure the next generation
to meet their needs.
Post–development Theory
• It holds that the whole concept and practice of
development is a reflection of Western-Northern
hegemony over the rest of the world.
• Post-development though arose in the late 1980s
and early 1990s out of criticisms voiced against
development projects and development theory,
which justified them.
 2. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
• The World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED), “Our Common Future” emphasis on the need for
a sustainable development which not only address the
current environmental challenges but endures as secure
society well in the future.
• According to WCED the environment, economic and
social issues are interrelated.
• The change drivers, such as population growth, economic
activities and consumption pattern have place increasing
pressure on the environment.
• Environment concern is a global phenomenon that is the
corner stone of the development process. There is greater
link between environment management and development
processes.
Environment
• Environment is not a new concept in a modern
development and its significance to development is not
inevitable. By definition is all surrounding and everything
that affect an organism during its life time.

Sustainable development
• By sustainable development simply the development that
meets the goals of the present without compromising the
ability of the future generations to meet their own needs
(World Commission, 1987:43)
• Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the
environment through depletion of resources such as air,
water and soil.
• It is defined as any change or disturbance to the
environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
 RELATIONS BETWEEN ENVIRONMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT
• The concept of devt and envt are intertwined concepts,
simply mean they depend each other.

• Envt can affect devt positively or negatively, at the same

time, devt may affect the envt positive and negatively.

• In order to achieve agriculture devt, the country have to

ensure good climatic condition, protection on envt ensure
good climate.

• Human being need fresh air for their survival and reduce
the rate of disease transmission
• Income generation, majority of the poor people depend on
natural resource for generating income, this include
fishing (Water bodies), timbering etc.

• Income generation, majority of the poor people depend on

natural resource for generating income, this include
fishing (Water bodies), timbering etc.

• The development activities have been causing great harm

to the environment and hindering to attainment of
sustainable development.
POSITIVE IMPACTS/ROLES OF ENVIRONMENT
TO DEVELOPMENT
 Environment brought food and shelters to human being.
According to UN Millennium Development Goal No. 7 on
Environmental Sustainability
 Environment increase people’s income and development
i.e timbering and other economic activities.
 Good climate conditions such as fresh air, adequate
rainfalls e.t.c
 Environment maintaining soil fertility and increase
agriculture production
 Environment produce medicine (pharmaceuticals) for
human life
MAJOR CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENT PLOBLEM
• In most case the activities of the human being to large
extent affect negatively on environment sustainability. The
following are the impacts of human development to
environment.
There are major two causes of environment:
i) Human Factors
ii) Non-Human Factors (Natural Factors)
i) HUMAN FACTORS
 Illiteracy
 Poverty
 Population Growth
 Industrial Development
 Agriculture Activities
 Infrastructure Development
 Mining Activities
 Poor Environmental Policies
ii) NATURAL FACTOR
 Earthquake
 Floods and drought i.e. Katrina and Tsunami
 Volcanic Eruptions
 THE IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION
Environment degradation is therefore, undermining
development and threaten future development progress.

Environmental degradation also threaten all aspects of

human well-being. It relates to human health problems
such as cancer, diseases and respiratory diseases.
Environmental problems can increase human vulnerability
because may results into human migration and security
such as the case of storms and droughts.
Environmental problem decrease agriculture productivity,
resulting to lower income and reduce food insecurity
ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS/ISSUES
• As we all know that there is greater link between
environment and development: the followings are
environmental issues that require special attention:
i) Climate Change and Global Warming
ii) Land Degradation
iii) Air Pollution
iv) Deforestation
v) Habitat Destruction
vi) Water Pollution
 1. LAND DEGRADATION
WHAT IS LAND DEGRADATION?
LD refer to the natural and human induces reduction in the
capacity of the land to provide ecosystem functions and
service that support society and development (FAO,2010)
 THE CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION
i) Natural Causes
 Earth Quake
 Wind erosion
 Floods Volcanic eruptions
 Fertility depletion
 Leaching
ii) Human causes
 Deforestation
Increase Population
Overgrazing
Urban development without well design
MAJOR IMPACTS OF LAND DEGRADATION

 Loss of productivity (i.e agriculture, food insecurity)

 Loss of biodiversity (animals and plants)
 Desertification (due to soil erosion)
 Human Health's ( Dust in atmosphere)
 Poverty due to the loss of income
2. AIR POLUTION
• WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION?
National Institute of Environmental Health Science (2010)
defined air pollution as a mixture of natural and man- made
substances (solid particles and gases) in the atmosphere.

• is the introduction of particles, and other harmful

substances into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases,
allergies, death to humans and other living organisms
such as animals and food crops.
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION
i) Indoor pollution: This type of air pollution is originated
from domestic use at family level. It include cooking
and heating with solid fuels on open fire or tradition
stoves which result to high level of indoor pollution

ii) Outdoor pollution: can be defined as the presence of

solid, liquid, or gases in outdoor air in the amounts that
are injurious or detrimental to human health and the
environment
Forest Burning
MAJOR CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
The source of air pollution can be categorized in two major
groups’ namely as human factors and natural factors. For
the purpose of our subject, we will focuses on the human
factors
HUMAN FACTORS
Industrial Activities
Poor Waste Disposal
Population Growth
Agriculture Activities
Road Traffic
Mining activities
Domestic use of Coal
NATURAL CAUSES
Volcanic Eruption
Evaporation of Organic Compound
Natural Radio Activity
Wind Erosion

Impact of pollution to Human & Development

Health Problem
It affect Agriculture
Air pollution cause damage to plants and animals.
Climate Change: by producing greenhouse gas
3. CLIMATE CHANGE
• WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?
• Climate Change can be defined as a long – term shift in
weather conditions identified by change in temperature,
precipitation, wind and other indictor.
• Climate change is currently a global phenomenon and
requires global efforts to reduce it as its impact cut across
different countries regardless of its borders.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE CLIMATE
CHANGE
• The factors that influence the climate change are
associated with their contribution to the emission of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These factors
can be categorized into two as follows:
Human Factors: which is largely caused by burning
fossil fuel and conversion of land for agriculture
Industrial Activities: The industrial activities that our
modern civilization
Agricultural Activities: Poor agriculture farming and
burning fossil result to greenhouse gases
Transport Sector: The transport facilities such as plane,
buses and old cars contributes to the emission of
greenhouses gases
Mining Activities
Natural Factors
These are natural factors that are external to the climate
system, it includes:
Volcanic Eruption
Change in Earth Orbit and the Sun
The amount of energy coming from the sun.
Ocean changes
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Spread of Diseases: To large extent climate change cont
respiratory infections, tropical diseases such as malaria.
This has great impact to underdeveloped countries.
Negatively affect agriculture production: Climate
change results to the change the pattern of rainfall. Most
developing countries that largely depend of seasonal
rainfall for farming are largely affected by climate change.
Natural Disaster: Such as “Katrina” in United States,
“Tsunami” in Sri Lanka etc.
Increase World Temperature: On average, Earth will
become warmer. Some regions may welcome warmer
temperature
Warm the Oceans and Melt Glacier: A stronger
greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt
glaciers and other ice, increasing sea level. Ocean water
also will expand if it warms, contributing further to sea
level rise.
 TOPIC THREE

GLOBALIZATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The concept of globalization is not a new phenomenon to
the people around the world. There is no single/universal
definition of what is globalization.

In a modern devt. is very difficult to separate btn

globalization and devt. The globalization process may
faster or hinder devt processes. Therefore, the study of
globalization and its impacts to devt is essential.
• According to Carney (2002) redefine globalization as the
relationship btn territoriality and authority, shifting authority
from the level of state to supranational (such as IMF &
World Bank) and sub national units.

• Globalization is the process that encompasses the

causes, and consequences of transnational and trans-
cultural integration of human and non human activities
(Jones, 2010)
• Larsson (2001) define globalization as the process of
world shrinkage of distances getting shorter, things
moving closer. The globalization increases trade
liberalization which reduces trade protection and
movement of people easer.
THE FOCUSES OF GLOBALIZATION
The globalization focuses on the followings areas/issues:
Growth of capitalist market economic worldwide and
reduce barriers to trade and investments
Growing interconnection between companies, govt and
individuals worldwide.
Advancement in information & communication technology
and transport
Qualitative change in organizations and societies as
consequences of new global interactions.
Political development, including democratization and good
governance
Social development including western civilization
worldwide.
1.HYPERGLOBALISTIC PERSPECTIVE
Some time is commonly known as Liberal perspective,
Hyper globalist argued that what distinguishes the present
era from the past, is the existence of single global economy
transcending and integrations the world’s economic region

It is approach which sees globalization as new epoch of

human history
This new approach is characterized by the declining
relevance & authority of National – State control.
Demise the role of government/state. It aimed at de-
nationalization of strategic economic activities.
According to them, globalization encourage for Non-state
actors in development process. Such as MNCs, TNCs
such as Coca Cola, Tigo, Barrick Ltd.
Transnational governance organization become
increasingly important and national government loose
influence. i.e. people can buy car via internet without
government involvement.
2. SCEPTICAL PERSPECTIVE
It is more much cautious about the revolutionary character
of the globalization (Thompson, 1999)
View current international processes as more fragmented
and regionalize than globalization.
Under these political blocs different forms of capitalism
continue to flourish.
According to them “the golden age” of globalization
occurred at the end of 19th century but now is regionalize
It criticize that, the growth of MNCs/TNCs does not mean
that National State are no longer relevant for governing
the flow of economic benefits
It criticize hyper globalist as Political Naïve since it
underestimate power of National government in regulating
international economic system.
Argue that, Multinational Corporation (MNCs) is still tied
primary to their home states or regions and financed by
state.
According to this view, states exploit the developing
countries with an umbrella of globalization and gain the
national and economic interests.
3. TRANFORMATIONAL APPROACH
This approach is fundamentally differing with other two
perception based on the followings:
• There is no single cause (that is the market or economic
logic) behind globalization
• The outcome of processes of globalization is not
determined
• It argues that world in which development in one region
can come to shape the life chances of communities in
distant parts of the globe.
• Globalization has contributed to remarkable politicization
of social life whilst also creating new modalities and
institutional
IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION
• Globalization has adverse effect to both developed and
developing countries, the process either negatively or
positively effects social, economical and political situation.
• In discussing the impacts we will focus on its impact to
North and South.
ITS IMPACTS TO GLOBALIZATION TO THE
NORTH
• Access to New Market:
• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):
• Economic Growth:
• Transfer of Technology:
• Increase employment rate:
• Address global problems
• Cheap Labour
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO THE SOUTH

The globalization process impacts negatively and positively

in development process. According to former UN Secretary
Kofi Annan’s Millennium report argued that “Globalization is
an extra ordinary powerful force offering both unique
challenges and opportunities for developing countries”.
POSITIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION
Increase economic development: The East Asia Tiger
(Taiwan, China, North Korea, Philippines and India)
gained economic development from globalization
processes.
Technological transfer and technological
innovations:
Financial Aids and Loans:
Democratization process:
Free Movement of People:
Maintenance of Political Stability
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
• Deindustrialization Process:)
• Marginalization of African Economy
• Increase the gap between the poor and rich countries:
• Slow growth, poverty & development: due to
• .Political instability:
• Increase environment problems
• WHY AFRICA BECOME A LOOSER IN
GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES?
WHY AFRICA BECOME A LOOSER IN
GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES?
• Inequalities in global economic structure: The economic
structure allows for more FDI to developing countries and
exploits them and attains economic benefits. It is very difficult
for developing countries to penetrate in World market.
• Have no VETO power in decision making process:
International financial Institutions such as IMF and World Bank
is highly dominate by Super power nations (The Big 5)
• Marginalization of African Economy: Developing countries
only become the producers of raw materials for developed
countries
• Poor technology and infrastructure: We still use outdate
technology in agriculture, production and depend from North.
• External Debts and dependent economy: The debts
and grants given to African continent come out with
difficulties conditionalities such as devaluation of
currencies, privatization etc
• Political Instability: civil war and political unrest
hindering developing countries to grab the opportunities
from globalization.
 TOPIC FOUR

POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT

POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
• Poverty and development are intertwined concepts and

each compliments another. Poverty reduction efforts

prepare the ways to achieve development and
development process aimed at improving standard of
living.
• Majority of the population in southern part of Africa are

living in extreme poverty and less than a dollar per day.

• Poverty is a major problem in different countries in the

world, especially the African countries and Latin America.

Poverty has caused underdevelopment to these countries
• Poverty is the state of being unable to afford the basic

needs or necessities of life such as food, clothes and

shelter. This is at individual level.
• At the country level, poverty can be stated as the

condition whereby a country is unable to be independent

economically hence depending on external on external
sources of finance its basic requirements for survival as a
nation.
MEANING OF POVERTY
Poverty
According to United Nation (1998) poverty is defined as
denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human
dignity.
According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights

(Article 25) define poverty as deprive the right to a

standard of living adequate for the health and well being
of himself and his family.
Based on these two definitions of poverty, development and

good standard of living is the right of every one regardless of

their status or continent. Every human being has right to
education, safe water, shelter, food etc.

• UNDP (2002) define poverty based on Human Poverty Index

(HPI). The HPI include measure of low life expectancy,

illiteracy, lack of access to health services, safe water and
adequate nutrition.
TYPES OF POVERTY

i) Absolute Poverty: a condition characterized by severe

deprivation of basic human needs include food, shelter,
it depends not only in income but also on access.
ii) Relative Poverty: this refer to income inequality, is
defined contextually as economic inequality in the
location or society in which people live.
VARIOUS INDICATORS OF POVERTY
In understanding poverty we have to know various indicators
of poverty as follows:
Income to people
Illiteracy rate
 Investment level (foreign owned or not)
Level of dependency (grants & aids)
Poverty gap i.e between the rich and poor
Health service provisions (High death rate)
Life expectancy
Economic development such as GDP
FACTORS BEHIND POVERTY IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
The cause of poverty in developing countries is complex and
internally and externally pressured. But to large extent internal
factors are the major factor for poverty in 3 rd world countries.

Internal Factors
Lack of capital

Corruption and Bribery: i.e Most of the leaders are

focusing on their personal interests than national interests

Low level of Technology (i.e Agriculture etc)
Lack of Political will

Population Growth:

Lack of democracy and good governance

Poor human

Political Instability: including unstable political

environment and civil wars

External Factors
The external factors for underdevelopment in Africa based on
the following factors:
Pre- colonial and Colonial relationship
External debts and negative conditionalities i.e SAPs
Economic dependency from the North
Political Instability i.e DRC, Sudan, planting for pipette leaders
e.t.c
Unequal economic balance between the North and South i.e
Market control 
Foreign Direct Investment i.e Mining sectors
Lack of involvement in decision process i.e VETO power in UN
and other International organization such as IMF, WB and WTO
Countries by Fragile States Index
This is a list of countries by order of appearance in the
Fragile States Index (formerly the Failed States Index) of
the United States.
A fragile state has several attributes. Common indicators
include a state whose central government is so weak or
ineffective that it has little practical control over much of its
territory;
non-provision of public services;
widespread corruption and criminality;
refugees and involuntary movement of populations; and
sharp economic decline
Indicators of a fragile state
• The following factors are used by Fund For Peace to
ascertain the status of a country.
Social
• Mounting demographic pressures and tribal, ethnic and/or
religious conflicts.
• Massive internal and external displacement of refugees,
creating severe humanitarian emergencies.
• Widespread vengeance-seeking group grievances.
• Chronic and sustained human flight.
Economic
• Widespread corruption
• High economic inequality
• Uneven economic development along group lines.
• Severe economic decline.
• Political
• Delegitimization of the state.
• Deterioration of public services.
• Suspension or arbitrary application of law; widespread
human rights abuses.
• Security forces operating as a "state within a state" often
with impunity.
• Intervention of external political agents and foreign states.
• The five most fragile countries, which comprise the
index’s Very High Alert category, are Yemen, Somalia,
South Sudan, Syria and the Democratic Republic of
Congo.
• In the High Alert category are the Central African
Republic, Chad, Sudan and Afghanistan.
• 'Most worsened'
• Venezuela and Brazil tied for the title of the Most
Worsened Country. Politics have riven both nations.
Venezuela’s election last year compounded long-standing
economic and social woes.
Effect of Poverty
i) Inability of the community members to get basic needs
ii) Inability to treatment
iii) Increase in illiteracy rate
iv) Deterioration of transport system
v) Increase of crime
vi) Loan burdens
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE TO REDUCE
POVERTY IN LDCs?
To encourage external capital flow with restriction on the
national interest and priorities.
To encourage industrial development, will increase
economic growth and employment.
To promote regional economic integrations such as EAC,
SADC,
To create self-reliant economy and reduce dependency
from North.
To invest in human capital i.e education
To maintain political stability and good governances
 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Meaning of MDGs
• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
• The international community’s realized that poverty is
global problems and requires purposeful effort to tackle it.
United Nations, in 2000 came out with Eight (8) MDGs as
the way to free people from extreme poverty.
• Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
• Achieve Universal Primary Education
• Promote gender equality and empower women
• Reduce child mortality
• Improve maternal health i.e pregnant women
• Combating HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases
• Ensure environment sustainability
• Develop a global partnerships for development
• 
Sustainable Development Goals 2030
• There are 17 SDGs to be implemented from 2015 to 2030
• Those Goals are initiated by UN
 TOPIC FIVE

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
• Gender is a developmental issue, that the existing gender

imbalance and inequalities in the society may prevent the

society from realising its full potential in all activities of
devt. in economic, social, cultural and political

• The govt. need to make sure that gender issues are fully

integrated in planning and budgeting in order to

strengthen the relationship btn. men & women for devt.
MEANING OF GENDER
• Gender and sex are interrelated concepts, in most cases,

people tend to confuse between gender and sex.

• Fundamentally these two concepts are totally different.

Sex refers to biological and physiological characteristic

that define men and women.
Gender
Refers to social constructed roles, behavior, activities and
attribute that a given society considers appropriate for men
and women. In most case, gender use “Masculine” and
“Feminine” to refer women and men.
• It is an individual’s self conception as being male or

female. It is social constructed that denotes

culturally/socially determined differences between men
and women.
• FAO (1993) define gender as “the relations between men

and women both perceptual and material and is socially

constructed.
 
• Therefore, the key concept is “Social Constructed”
WHY GENDER CONCERNS?
Because of the existing gender inequality between men
and women in various social, economic sectors.
The desire to achieve 50/50 of human resources between
male and female
Aimed at addressing the issue of gender violence and
oppression to woman
To ensure equal opportunities to all regardless of the sex
of individuals.
To achieve desired national social economical
development
 THE GENDER CONCEPTS AND
ISSUES
• From the concept of gender, people have extracted many

concepts that show the reality of women and men’s

interaction in the society. Among them are:-
• Gender balance, gender roles, gender blindness, gender

discrimination, gender stereotype, gender equity, gender

analysis, and gender mainstreaming
Gender Equality
• The concept of gender equality has been defined in

various ways but the major concern is to ensure the

positive r’ship btn. men and women. Gender inequality
has significant impacts in development processes.
• Example in Saud Arabia there is no equality between

women and men, such as women are not allowed to vote

or participate in political process
Gender equality is the measurable equal representation

of men and women in social economic development

Gender equality does not imply that women and men are

the same but imply that women and men have equal
value and should be treated equally regardless they are
born male or female.
Therefore, both men and women should have equal

access to education, equal access to human capital,

equal voices, and equal access to social services as well
as ownership of properties.
 Gender Equity
Most people confuse between gender equity and gender
equality means the same. By definition gender equity is
the process of being fair to both women and men.
Gender equity aim at ensuring fairness, strategies and
measure available to compensate for women’s historical
and social disadvantages that favour men and prevent
women.
You should note that gender equity lead to gender
equality
Gender equity refers to fairness and designed to
eliminate discrimination and provide equal opportunities.
 Gender Roles
Gender roles are socially defined activities performed by

women and men in a society. The gender roles differ from

one society/country to another based on their culture and
division of labour.
Gender –specific roles and responsibilities in most cases

conditioned by household structures, access to resources,

specific impacts and global economy.
In African Societies and Arabs, women are
associated/responsible for cooking and take care of the
children at home WHILE men are responsible to search for
money, engage in politics.
In the USA, for example, men are generally expected to be

independent, aggressive, physical, ambitious, and able to

control their emotions; women are generally expected to be
passive, sensitive, emotional, nurturing, and supportive.
 Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming is the of integration of gender

perspective into every stage of policy processes – design,

implementation, monitoring and eradication –with a view
of promoting gender equality.
A strong commitment to gender mainstreaming is one of

the most effective means for the UN to support promotion

of gender equality at all levels – in research, legislation,
and policy devt.
The term “Mainstreaming” emerge the early 1980s when

in the midst UN decade for women’s movement.

The main objectives of gender mainstreaming is to

attaining gender equality

GM allows for contribution perspectives and priorities of

both women and men in development process design,

implementation and outcome of policies and programs.
GM aimed at fighting against women marginalization in

decision making and policy formulation.

Gender blindness
• It is inability of a society to understand or perceive that,

there are different roles and responsibilities that are

suppose to be performed by both men and women. The
inability to realise the gender policies, programmes and
projects are some of the problems which face the society.
Gender Balance
• Gender balance can be stated as the situation whereby there

is equal access to social and economic needs btn men &

women. E.g in leadership, employment opportunities,
education, and inheritance of natural resources.
• In Tz. for example gender balance has been implemented

special seats has increased from 15% - 30%.

• The long term objective of UNGA is to achieve 50/50 percent

gender balance.
Gender stereo type
• It is a way men and women are portrayed in the society.

Some believe that science subjects are for male students

and arts are for female students.

• It is generalization about gender attributes, differences

and roles of individual and/or groups. It involves the

tendency of making gender assumptions.
Gender Discrimination
• It is the process of treating people unfairly based on gender.

Gender discrimination involves the process of isolating one sex

treating it differently because of being male or females.
• In LDCs, women are treated unfairly and less value, women are

discriminate in property ownerships, in other societies gender

discrimination can be lead to son preference to education and
other privilege
• In 1979, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) protects the rights of

women.
Gender analysis
• It is a type of socio-economic analysis that uncovers how

gender relations affect a development problem. The aim

may just be to show that gender relations will probably
affect the solution, or to show how they will affect the
solution and what could be done.
 MAJOR CAUSES OF GENDER
OPPRESSION AND VIOLANCE
• Violence against women can be defined as the violence

that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual and

psychological harm or suffering to women. It includes
threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether in public or private life
• Religious factors: Both Christians and Muslims direct
their followers to respect for man than women, favour
men in everything
• Traditions and Cultural Factors: The tradition and
Culture of various societies regard man as superior than
man. i.e. regard them as instrument of refreshing
• Ignorance and Illiterate: Is another factor that influences
the oppression against women. Majority of the population
are not aware of the global change in equal right for man
and women.
• Inferiority Complex/Superiority Complex: To large
extent women feel inferior to men.
•  
• Economic Factors: In economic area, largely dominated
by men therefore affect the power of women in economy.
•  
• Lack of Political Will: Most of our government leaders
and ordinary people they are not serious on the issue of
gender violence and discrimination.
 Countries doing better in gender issues
• Global perspective
• Africa perspective
• East Africa perspective
• Tanzania perspective
1.Iceland
2.Norway
3.Finland
4.Sweden
5.Nicaragua
6.New Zealand
7.Ireland
8.Spain
9.Rwanda
10.Germany Global Gender Gap Report 2020 ,
 LECTURE SIX

HIV/AIDS AND DEVELOPMENT

MEANING OF HIV/AIDS
Majority of the people in most cases confuse between
HIV and AIDS and define them as the same concept.
These two concepts are fundamentally different and mean
the different thing.

• HIV is stand for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and the

disease HIV weaken your immune system by destroying
important cell that fight disease and infection
• At this stage, the HIV patient is not already started to be
serious sick
• HIV like other viruses is too small to be seen by an

ordinary microscope. To reproduce, HIV must enter a

body cell that in this case is an immune cell. White blood
cells play an important part in the body’s defences against
illness. HIV attacks the white body cells, grow and
replicate inside the body and infect more cells.
• A more HIV is made white blood cells become few and

illness develops.
• HIV leaves the body poorly protected against particular

types of diseases, which these cells normally deal with.

Several infection develop, as the HIV weakens the
immune system. These infections are called opportunistic
infections. This include respiratory infections such as TB,
candidiasis in the mouth, diarrhoea and brain infection,
some people may develop cancers (Mwakajinga, 2005)
• AIDS simply mean Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome, and at this stage a person is starting to realize
the symptoms of infection.
• AIDS is not something you inherit from your parents, but it

is acquired after birth.

HOW HIV/AIDS TRANSMITTED?
• HIV is a relatively weak virus once it is outside the body. It

cannot live for a long time in the air, which makes it

impossible to be transmitted by casual contact such as:
holding hands, sneezing, and coughing. HIV is carried in
body fluids. The most important are semen, blood and
vaginal fluid.
Transmission of HIV/AIDS
i. Sexual Contact: This includes anal, oral or vaginal sex
with an infected partner. If your partner has HIV, those body
fluid can deliver the virus into your blood stream through
microscope breaks and lips.

ii. Injection Drug Use: When you are injured or use

injections or sharp equipment that already used by infected
person. Example “Mateja” used to share the injection.
iii. Blood transfusion: with the infected blood or unsafe

blood transmission during the treatment.

iv. During Pregnancy, child birth and/or breath feeding.
v. Donated organs
Discovered and diagnosed HIV
• In 1981, homosexual men with symptoms of a disease

that now are considered typical of AIDS were first

described in Los Angeles and New York. The patients
were noted to have severe reduction in type of cell in the
blood that is important part of the immune system, called
CD4 cells, helps the body to fight infections. Shortly there
after, the disease was recognised throughout the USA,
Western Europe and Africa.
• In 1983, researchers in the USA and France described the

viruses that causes AIDS, now known as human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and belonging to the group of
virus called retroviruses. In 1985, a blood test became
available that measure antibodies to HIV that are body’s
immune response to the HIV. The blood test remains the best
method for diagnosing HIV infection.
• Recently, tests have become available to look for the same

antibodies in blood and saliva within 20 minutes

 HIV/AIDS STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT IN
TANZANIA
• In Tanzania, the first cases of HIV/AIDS were reported in 1983 in
Kagera Region. Within 20 ysr (1983-2003) some 150,000 AIDS
cases were reported through health service
(Mwakajinga, 2013)
• HIV/AIDS infection is unevenly distributed across geographical
areas, gender, age, sex and groups and social economical classes
in the country.

• The statistics shows that youth and women have been the most
affected group because of the economical, social –culture,
biological and anatomical reasons.

• In Tanzania, transmission of HIV/AIDS occurs mainly through

heterosexual contact than others.
• In 2015, 1.4 million people were living with HIV in Tanzania. This

equates to an estimated HIV prevalence of 4.7% (UNAIDS,

2016). In 2015, 54,000 people were newly infected with HIV,
and 36,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness.
• Despite the numbers, Tanzania has done well to control the HIV

epidemic over the last decade. Scaling-up access to

antiretroviral treatment has helped Tanzania minimise the
impact of the epidemic. As a result, between 2010 and 2015,
the number of new infections declined by more than 20% and
the number of people dying from an AIDS-related illness halved.
(UNAIDS, 2016).
HIV/AIDs STATUS IN TANZANIA
• The severity of the epidemic varies across the country.

Some regions report an HIV prevalence of around 1.5%

(Manyara) while other regions have prevalence as high as
14.8% (Njombe). (TZ MoH, 2014). Overall, the epidemic
has remained steady because of on-going new infections,
population growth and increased access to treatment.
KEY POINTS
Tanzania has made significant gains in the scale-up of its
antiretroviral (ART) programmes. The number of people
on ART, retained in care and virally suppressed has been
steadily increasing since 2010.
Despite more people living with HIV benefitting from
effective treatment, linkage to care after diagnosis
remains one of the weakest parts of Tanzania’s HIV
treatment cascade.
Preventing mother-to-child transmission programmes
have been successful in reducing the rate of new vertical
HIV infections in Tanzania.
Condom use is declining: in 2017, just 30% of women
and 46% of men reported using condoms with casual
partners.
Tanzania was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to
introduce harm reduction programmes. However, access
remains patchy as only one in five people who inject
drugs are able to access opioid substitution therapy.
Gender inequality, HIV-related stigma and the
criminalisation of certain groups, such as men who have
sex with men, continue to act as major barriers to HIV
prevention in Tanzania.
Key affected populations in Tanzania

• Tanzania’s HIV epidemic is generalised, with pockets of

concentrated epidemics among key populations such as

people who inject drugs, men who have sex with men,
mobile populations and sex workers. Heterosexual sex
accounts for the vast majority (80%) of all HIV infections
in Tanzania and women are particularly affected.
(TZ MoH, 2014)
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TRANSMISSION
OF HIV/AIDS IN TANZANIA
 There are number of factors that influences the spread of
HIV/AIDS in our country. Below are some of the factors:
i. Poverty: This is one of the major factors that
contributed to the spread of HIV/AIDS to the majority of
Tanzanians. Lack of employments and venue to
generate income influence girls/women to engage
themselves in prostitute behavior for their survival.
ii. Traditional Beliefs and Culture: is another factor for
spread of HIV/AID in Tanzania. Some culture and
beliefs are still believe in female circumcision, early
marriage, and polygamist and inherit wife from
deceased.
iii. Ignorance and Illiteracy: majority of the population is
illiterate and ignorant of HIV/AIDS, they are not aware
of the way HIV is transmitted. They are ignorance of the
use condoms and how to take precaution against
HIV/AIDS.
iv. Group Behavior: HIV/AIDS to large extent affect the
youth and female due to unprotected sex behavior and
the use of drugs. Most of them they don’t want to
change their behavior.
v. Lack of Political Will: to address the problem of
HIV/AIDS, the government should invest much in
education and awareness on the disease.
 HIV/AIDs and DEVELOPMENT
• HIV/AIDS is a major devt crisis that affects all sectors.
During the last 3 decades the HIV/AIDs epidemic has
spread relentlessly affecting people of all walks of life and
decimating the most productive segments of the
population particularly women and men btn 20 – 40 yrs.

• Epidemic is a serious threat to the country’s social and

economic devt and has a serious direct implication on the
social services and welfare
 IMPACTS OF HIV/AIDS TO SOCIAL,
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
• The HIV/AIDS has had serious impact on the country’s social,
economical development as follows:
i. Depopulation: The disease to large extent kill majority of
the population especially youth.
ii. Increase Poverty: At family level, result to the loss of the
parents who are the source of income to the family. The
disease resulted to household poverty.
iii. It affects industrial and agriculture production due to the
death labour forces.
iv. Increase orphans and street children
v. Reduce number of skill/educated manpower by killing lot
professionals. This result cause high cost of recruitment
and training the new personnel
vi. Reduce Life Expectancy: The World Bank (WB)
estimates that because of the AIDS epidemic life, life
expectancy by 2010 will revert to 47 years instead of
the projected 56 year in the absence of HIV/AIDS
vii. Increase dependency ratio

• Note: Please read “Tanzania National Policy on HIV/AIDS”

• 
Strategies addressing HIV/AIDs in TZ
• Establish of the National AIDS Control Programme

(NACP)
• Establishment of the Tanzania Commission for AIDS

(TACAIDS
• Establishment of the National policy on HIV.AIDS
 HIV prevention programmes in Tanzania
1) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV
(PMTCT)
• Nearly a fifth of all new HIV infections in Tanzania are due
to mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) (TZ MoH, 2014)
Tanzania aims to virtually eliminate MTCT and reach 90%
of all pregnant women with treatment, reduce the MTCT
rate to less than 5%, and maternal and child mortality by
90% by 2017 (TZ MoH, 2014)
2) Condom promotion
• The Tanzanian government recognises condom promotion
as an integral part of its fight against the epidemic.
• In 2013, the most current annual data available, over 109
million condoms and 1.7 million female condoms were
distributed(TZ MoH, 2014). In 2016, Tanzania’s Ministry of
Health, in collaboration with Population Services
International (PSI) and TACAIDS,
3) VMMC in Tanzania
• Circumcision is an effective HIV prevention strategy,
reducing a man’s risk of acquiring HIV by approximately
60%. When used in combination with other prevention
measures, circumcision is an important addition to HIV-
prevention options for men.
4) Harm reduction
• In 2011, with assistance from PEPFAR, Tanzania became
the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to implement a
harm reduction programme for people who inject drugs.
(Embassy of US Tz, 2011)
• A methadone treatment clinic opened up in Tanzania’s
largest health facility, based in DSM, then extended to a
second hospital in the city.
5) HIV and TB co-infection in Tanzania

• The government have prioritised the integration of TB

services with HIV services to minimise the burden of

these two co-morbidities. Ensuring that people living with
HIV are on antiretroviral treatment means that they are in
a better place to fight off TB infection. Integrating these
two services will also ensure greater access to TB
treatment.
MGT and Control of HIV/AIDs
• In order to manage and control HIV/AIDs both individual

and communty must take their responsibilities to reduce

the risk of HIV and STIs transmissions. The community
side Healthcare provider in the community should tell
clients how to prevent STIs and HIV/AIDs, and how to
know if they are affected.
• People should be encouraged to seek medcare if they

suspect infection or develop symptoms.

Role of Individuals
• i) encourage peer education and positive peer pressure

• Ii) Change the risky environment

• Iii) Talk about sex at the church/mosque

• The Role of Family

• Parents feel that they lack knowledge or information about

HIV/AIDs and STIs. Children may never have a conversation

with their parents about issues that make them vulnerable, such
as sex, drugs. The first time children hear about sex and drugs
is usually through receiving false information.
The Role of schools
• Schools sometimes teach sex education. However, in
many cases the education is basic and focus on biology
rather than at social and emotional issues in preparing
children for responsible adult life.
• The most important HIV-related skills that a young person
needs to learn include:
How to make sound decisions about relationships and
sex and stand up for them.
How to identify personal reasons for resisting peer
pressure for unwanted sex and drugs.
How to identify and avoid or leave a situation that mighty
be risky
How and where to ask for support and find youth-friendly

health services.
How to negotiate safe sexual intercourse, including the

use of condoms,
How to show compassion to people with HIV and AIDs

How to care for people with AIDs in the family and

community.
Education about HIV/AIDs in schools could be more
effective by focusing on these life skills
 TOPIC SEVEN

POPULATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
GLOBAL POPULATION SIZE & TRENDS

• Population growth in the past was at a slower rate compared

to now.This was caused by factors such as 1. Plagues 2.

Poor health conditions and 3. Wars . Thus reduced
populations in several parts of the world.From the 18th
century, however the population began to increase very
fast.Between 1750 and 1900 world population growth rate
was0.5 percent per annum
• In the 20th century the growth rate increased from 0.5 to 1%

until1950, and now it is about 2% per annum.

• It took about more than 1,500 years for thepopulation to double

up to the years 1750.Then it doubled to reach 1.7 billion by

the1900, within only 150 years.Now in almost a period of less
than 50 years i.e from 1950 to date the world population has
nearly doubled again from about 2.5 to almost 6.0billion.
• In terms of distribution, the world population is uneven.More

than 815 is located in the developing countries. The countries

with highest population in the world are Chinafollowed by India.
Characteristic of population: Developing vs.
Developed countries
• Value of children as source of labour.
• Old age security and mortality risk
 Early marriage
 Decline in the practice of prolonged breast –feeding
 Decline in the practice of sexual abstinence after
childbirth
 Low status of women
 Limited use of modern family planning methods
 Relatively lack of a clear population policy
 Sex preferences
Population trend in Africa
• The population in Africa was estimated to be 141 million in

1920, which represented about 8% of the world

population. In 1980 Africa had about 869 million people
which were about 11% of the world population. Currently
Africa has 1.2 billion people. About 13.5 of the world
population has been increasing significance over years.
Moreover, the rapid increase of the population is reflected
in the changing population density in the region
 Within Africa, there exists notable variations in population
size and growth in Africa between regions
 By 2002, Eastern Africa had the largest population in the
continent, followed by Western Africa. Southern Africa had
the smallest proportion than all other regions.
 The population estimates for 2025 indicates that Western
Africa will take the lead in terms of population size
Demographic situation in Tanzania
• Several attempts to count the population of Tanzania have

been made. Earlier counts in 1913, 1921, 1928 and 1931

were based on the tax payers records and native
administration’s reports
• The data obtained from these counts were considered

inaccurate in detail and statistically incorrect due to their poor

coverage and reporting system (Tanganyika, 1932) The more
scientific censuses were obtained in 1948, 1957, 1967, 1978,
1988 and 2002.
Population density
There is clear evidence to suggest existence of unequal

distribution of population by regions.

Eleven regions in the mainland had a population of more

than a million in 1988. These include mwanza, mbeya,

shinyanga, Dar, arusha., kagera, iringa morogoro, tabora
Kilimanjaro and Dodoma. But in 2012 the number has
gone to 19 regions.
The population density by region in the mainland shows
that Dar region has the highest population density 1.793
per square km. and lindi region has the lowest density 12
per square km.
The other regions with higher density in the mainland are
mwanza 150 and Kilimanjaro 104.
In Zanzibar almost all regions have higher density than
most of the mainland’s regions
These density differentials are largely caused by annual
population increase which is a result of fertility and
mortality changes and other factors such as migration.
Similarly, the variability of arable land and its quality is of
considerable importance in explaining the internal
disparities in population densities.
Given the fact that the majority of the population live in
the rural area and depend on peasant agriculture, the
quality of land and its accessibility encourage the
population to select the best parts in the first place
( Madulu, 1996)
MAIN SOURCES OF POULATION DATA IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
1) CENSUS
is defined as the total process of collecting, compiling, and
publishing demographic, economic and social data
pertaining at specific time or times to all persons in a
country or delineated territory. (UN, 1965).
It is common method in most LDCs and the world in
general. It is carried out in intervals of five or ten years.

It is good method of recording the size, distribution and

other characteristics of the population at fixed intervals
MAIN FEATURES OF A POPULATION
CENSUS
i) Sponsorship
• A census is usually sponsored by the national
government. It is the responsibility of the government to
provide and mobilize resources from other sources
necessary for conducting a census. A census requires
adequate legislative support or legal authority.

2) Universality within a defined territory: Enumeration

must cover every person within a defined territory or
geographic unit e.g state, country, nation. When this
condition is not fulfilled for whatever reason
iii) Simultaneity: To have any comparative logic, a census
should refer to a well-defined period of time and to be
taking simultaneously throughout the country. For example,
in Tanzania the 1967, 1978, and 1988 census were
conducted on the 26th/27th August of the respective years.

iv) Individual enumeration: Every individual is

enumerated separately. It is only on rare occasions that
group enumeration can be applied over communities.
v) Defined periodicity: A census should be taken at
constant intervals, say ten years, so that the information
collected can be comparable. This has major advantage in
appraising the past, present and future population trends
vi) Demarcated enumeration areas
• A census requires a detailed geographic work to
demarcate the country into smaller enumeration areas or
clusters that can be conveniently covered by one
enumerator within the census period.
IMPACTS OF POPULATION GROWTH ON
RESOURCES
• Resource can be defined as materials useful or potential
for human use. Currently human race is dependent on
them for survival. Resources can be divided into two
major groups:
i) Renewable resources: these are resources which
replenish themselves within a short time such as water,
timber, soil and solar power.
ii) Non-renewable resources are resources that take time to
replenish such as fossil fuels (coal, and oil) and minerals.
Other factors affecting resources in LDCs.
• There are several other factors contributing to resources
depletion in LDCs apart from demographic ones. Namely:
• equality in access to resources especially land
• Production of large-scale commercial agriculture
• Commercialization of resources
• Breakdown of traditional resources management system.