INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS

Third Edition
By : Merrill I. Skolnik

Chapter 2 :
The Radar Equation

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Simple form of Radar Equation

1
 Pt G Ae   4
Rmax    f ( Pt , G , Ae ,  , S min )
 4  S min 
2

Ae is effective aperture of antenna  is radar cross section

Pt is peak power

G is gain of antenna

S min Minimum of detectable signal by receiver

Under control of Radar designer Target parameter

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The failure of Simple Form

1. Statistical nature of Smin (determined by reciever noise).

2. Fluctuation of radar cross section.
3. Losses.
4. Propagation effects (earth‘s surface, weather and atmosphere)

Therefore: The probability of detection : Pd

and The probability of false alarm : Pfa must be considered.

This mean: Rmax  f ( Pt , G , Ae ,  , S min , Pd , Pfa )

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Detection of Signal in Noise

Threshold Detection :

A-scope presentation
(amplitude versus time or range)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Receiver Noise

Thermal Noise Power: k T BN

S in
noise out of practical receiver N out N
Fn    in
noise out of ideal receiver at T0 k T0 Bn Ga S out
N out
S in
N k T0 Bn Fn S out  S out 
Fn  in S in  S min  k T0 BFn  
S out N out  N out  min
N out

4 Pt G Ae 
R 
max
4 2 k T0 BFn S / N min

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Probability Density Functions (PDF)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Probability of False Alarm

Envelope Detector:

1  vn 2 
Probability of Noise Voltage in input of IF stage is Gaussian PDF : p ( vn )  exp   
  0  vn
2

2 0  2 0 

R  R2 
Mr. Rice has shown that the noise in output of IF is Rayleigh : p ( R )   exp   2 
0  0 

 R  R2   VT 2 
Probability of False Alarm : p (VT  R   )   exp   dR  exp   
VT  2  2 
0  0   0 

 VT 2 
 Pfa  exp  

 2 0 

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Probability of False Alarm

t k
1 1  VT 2 
Pfa  k 1
N
  Tfa  exp  

T k
Tfa B B  2 0 
k 1

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Probability of False Alarm

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Probability of Detection
R  R 2  A 2  RA RA Zero-order Modified
Rice Probability density function ps ( R)  exp    I 0 ( ) I0 ( )
0  0
 2 0  0 Bessel Function

R  R 2  A 2  RA
Pd  p (VT  R   )   exp   I 0 ( ) dR
VT  
0  2 0  0

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses

r is Rotate Per Minute (rpm) of Antenna

f p is Pulse Repetition frequency (PRF) of Radar
 B is Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) of Antenna
n is number of pulse per scan ( hit per scan )
sec
60 sec  360  r 60  B 
 x  B
x?  B 360  r 6  r

x is time on target
1 sec  fp
B
B n fP
 n?  6 r
6 r

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses

Types of Integration:
1. Pre-detection integration (Coherent integration ).
2. Post-detection integration (Non-coherent integration ).

1. Pre-detection integration needs to phase of pulses.

2. Post-detection integration don’t need to phase of pulses
( S / N )1
Integration Efficiency : Ei ( n ) 
n (S / N ) N

Integration Improvement Factor : I i ( n )  n Ei ( n )

1
Integration Loss: Li ( n )  10 log J. I. Marcum, 1954, Rand Corporation report
Ei ( n )

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Integration of Radar Pulses
1
 Pt G Ae  n Ei ( n )  4
Rmax   
 4 2
kT0 BFn ( S / N )1

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

2
Reflected power towa rd source unit solid angle Er
  4 R 2 2
Incident power density 4 Ei
Types of Targets:
• Simple targets such as: Sphere, Cylinder, Flat plate, Rod, Ogive and cone
• Complex targets such as: Aircraft, Ship, Building, …

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

Sphere :

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section
Aircraft :

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section
Ships:

1 3
  52 f D 2 2

f frequency (MHz)
D ship displacement (kiloton)

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

Ships:

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

Missiles:

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 The Radar Cross Section

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

N
sr (t )   ai sin( 2 f t   i )  A sin( 2 f t   )
i 1

target
s1 (t )
s2 (t )
s3 (t )
s N (t )

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations
Swerling Target Models:

Case 0: No-Fluctuation in radar cross section occurs.

Scan to Scan Fluctuation (Rayleigh scattering ) or slow Fluctuation with PDF:

Case 1:

1 
p ( )  exp(  )  0
 av  av
Case 2: Pulse to Pulse Fluctuation or Fast Fluctuation with same PDF of case 1:

Case 3: Scan to Scan Fluctuation with PDF:

4 2
p ( )  2
exp(  )  0
 av  av
Swerling assume that target is very big and contain many small targets

Case 4: Pulse to Pulse Fluctuation or Fast Fluctuation with same PDF of case 3:

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations
1
Fluctuations loss : L f  L f  ne

Radar Cross-Section Loss

in radar equation:
1
  4

 Pt G Ae  n Ei ( n ) 
Rmax  1 
 4 2 kT BF ( S / N ) L  ne 
 0 n 1 f 

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Radar Cross-Section Fluctuations

Decorrelation by frequency Diversity & Agility :

Frequency Diversity:
Multiple TX/RX in different frequency is used. Example is air traffic
control radar for reliability of detection.

Frequency Agility: Pulse to Pulse change in radar frequency by a wide band TX.
It don’t used for MTI radars.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency)

c
2Run  c T 
fP

c
fP 
2Run

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Antenna Parameters

4 4 26000  26000
Gain : G  2 Ae  2 a A or G  GdB  10log 
   B B  
 B B 
 
 B  65 is vertical beam width B  65 is horizontal beam width
Dv Dh

power radiated in  and  direction

unit solid angle
G( , ) 
power accepted by antenna
4
G(, )   A D(, )

D is directivity of antenna
Power radiated in  and  direction
unit solid angle
D( , ) 
Power radiated by antenna
4

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Antenna Parameters

Beam Shape : G( , )

Pencil Beam :  B or  B  1 3 deg. Fan Beam : B  30 deg. , B  1 deg.

Typical values Typical values

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Antenna Parameters

Cosecant Squared Beam: G( )  G0 csc2  

Pt G22 csc4   csc  

R

k1
Pr  4
Pr   k1
4  R
3 4
R4 h h

Height
Antenna Pattern

T1 T2
R1 R2

h h
TX/RX
Range

Pr T arg et 1  Pr T arg et 2

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Antenna Parameters

Cosecant Squared Beam:

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2

 Antenna Parameters

Revisit Time : Scan rime of antenna

Rotate Per Minute (RPM) r

r is depending to : 1. Number of pulse for suitable signal to noise.

2. Target speed.

Practical value for  r is :

• 5-6 rpm for long range air traffic control radars.
• 10-15 rpm for long range military radars.
• 30-60 rpm for high speed targets.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS , Merrill I. Skolnik , Third Edition Chapter 2