Chapter Four

Drainage systems and water resources of Ethiopia and the Horn

Unit Contents
1. Introduction
2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
3. Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and Sub- Surface Water .
1. The Ethiopian Rivers
2. The Ethiopian Lakes
3. Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia
4. Water Resources Potentials and Development in Ethiopia

Unit Objectives
At the end of this chapter you will be able to
• Describe the major drainage systems in Ethiopia and the Horn,
• Examine the surface and ground water resource potentials of Ethiopia,
• Understand economic potentials of the water sector in Ethiopia
1. Introduction
• About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water bodies (mainly by seas and
oceans).
• Of the |Earth’s total water surface,
• Nearly 97.5% is alkaline accumulated in seas and oceans.
• The remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Of which
• 68.7% is deposited in glaciers,
• 30.1% in ground water,
• 0.8% in permafrost and
• 0.4% in surface waters
• Water in lakes, rivers, atmosphere, soils and wetlands are considered as surface waters.
• Surface and ground waters are by far the most abundant and easily available fresh
waters.
• However, fresh water is distributed unevenly throughout the world following varied
latitudinal locations, climatic and topographic setups.
• The topographic setup of Ethiopia is characterized by complex blend of massive
highlands, rugged terrain, and low plains.
 4.2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
• The diverse topographical setup, relatively higher rainfall and its nearness to equator
made the country to have larger volume of ground and surface water.
• Around 0.7 % of the total land mass of Ethiopia is covered by water bodies.
• Ethiopia’s surface water potential is estimated to be 124.4 billion cubic meters (BCM).
• Consequently, many call Ethiopia, the water tower of “Eastern Africa”
• The flow of water through well-defined channel is known as drainage.
• A drainage system is made up of a principal river and its tributaries (the rivers that
flow into it).
• A river system begins at a place called the source or headwater and ends at a point
called mouth.
• A drainage system is branched network of stream channels and the adjacent land
slopes they drain.
• The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological processes, nature and
structure of rocks, topography, slope, amount and the periodicity of the flow.
4.2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
• A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a river and its tributaries
collect both the surface runoff and subsurface flow.
• It is bounded by and separated from other river basins by a water divide or
topographic divide.
• The general patterns of major river basins in Ethiopia are determined by two factors:
• The topography of the outward sloping of the Western and South eastern plateaus
• The structural formation of the Rift Valley with its in-ward-sloping escarpments
resulting mainly in an inland drainage system.
• Faults and joints that structurally influence part of the courses of many rivers.
• Following the complex physiographic setup and geological makeup, Ethiopia
possesses three broadly classified drainage systems.
• Namely Western, Southeastern and Rift Valley Drainage Systems.
• The Western and the Southeastern drainage systems are separated by the Rift
Valley system.
 4.2. Drainage…
A The Western Drainage SystemsMajor
• It is the largest drainage systems draining 40% of the total area of the country and carry
60 percent of the annual water flow.
• This drainage system comprises four major river basins:
• Abay (65%),
• Baro-Akobo (17%),
• Tekeze(12%), (major tributers are (Angereb and Goang)
• Ghibe (Omo) (6%).
• Omo /Ghibe/ - flows to south (exceptional)
• Tekeze, Abay, Baro-Akobo= Join the Nile & finally to Mediterranean Sea
• Tekeze River is termed Atbara in Sudan
• The Baro together with Akobo forms the Sobat River in South Sudan
B. The Southeastern Drainage Systems
• The basin is drained by Wabi-shebelle and Ghenale Rivers into, south-eastwards slopes
across large water deficient plains.
• Major highlands of this basin include plateaus of Arsi, Bale, Sidama and Harerghe.
• Wabshebelle and Ghenale rivers cross the border into Somalia, carrying 25 percent of
the annual water flow of Ethiopia.
• Ghenalle has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabi- shebelle, reaches the
Indian Ocean.
• In Somalia, Ghenalle is named the Juba River.
Drainage Basins of Ethiopia
Source: CSA shapefile, 2012
 4.2. Drainage…
C. The Rift Valley Drainage System:
• This is an area of small amount of rainfall, high evaporation and small catchment area.
• The size of the drainage area is restricted by the outward sloping highlands, which starts
right from the edge of the escarpment.
• The Rift Valley drainage system is therefore left with the slopes of the escarpment and
the Rift Valley floor itself as the catchment area.
• The only major river basin is that of the Awash.
 4.3. Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and Sub- Surface Water
4.3.1. The Ethiopian Rivers
• Unlike many other African countries, Ethiopia is endowed with many rivers.
• Majority of the rivers originate from highland areas and cross the Ethiopian boundary.
• Altogether, Ethiopian rivers form 12 major watersheds separating the Mediterranean
Sea from the Indian Ocean drainage systems.

12 major watersheds of Ethiopia

 Data on major Ethiopian rivers
Rivers Catchment       Major tributaries
Area (km2) Total Inside Outsi
de
Abay 198508 1360 800 560 Dabus, Dedessa, Fincha, Guder,
Muger, Jema, Beshilo
Wabi 205407 2000 1340 660 Ramis Erer, Daketa, Fafan
shebelle
Ghenale 168141 1050 480 370 Dawa, Weyb, Welmel, Mena
Awash 113709 1200 1200 0 Akaki, Kesem, Borena, Mile
Tekeze 87733 1168 608 560 Tirari (Atbara, Angereb)
Ghibe 77205 760 760 0 Gojeb
(Omo)
Baro 75718 507 227 280 Akobo
 4.3. Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and Sub-Surface
Water …
General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers
• Owing to the highland nature of the Ethiopian landmass, surface
ruggedness, the outward inclination of the highlands, and the climatic
conditions, Ethiopian rivers have the following characteristics.
• Almost all major rivers originate from the highlands elevating more than
1500 meters above sea level
• Majority of Ethiopian rivers are trans-boundary,
• Due to the marked seasonality of rainfall, Ethiopian rivers are characterized
by extreme seasonal fluctuation.
• In the wet season, runoff is higher and rivers are full bursting their banks,
destroying small bridges, damage roads and flooding low lands; during the
dry seasons they became mere trickles of water or even dry up,
• Due to surface ruggedness they have rapids and waterfalls along their
course,
• They have cuts, steep-sided river valleys and deep gorges along their
courses,
• Rivers in Ethiopia flow on steep slopes having steep profiles.
• Some of the rivers serve as boundaries, both international and domestic
administrative units.
 4.3.2.The Ethiopian Lakes :
• Why do majority of lakes in Ethiopia are clustered in rift valley system?
• We have lakes already dried and drying up?
• How do you think that happened?
• Relatively Ethiopia is rich in lakes.
• Almost all Ethiopian lakes are result of tectonic processes
during Quaternary period of Cenozoic era.
• Except few Ethiopian lakes, majority of lakes are located within the Rift Valley
System.
• The lakes in the drainage are mainly formed on faulted depressions and are
clustered along the system forming linear pattern.
• Lake Tana, the largest lake in Ethiopia occupies a shallow depression in the
highlands.
• The Tana depression is believed to be formed following slower sinking and
reservoir by lava flow between Gojjam and Gonder massifs.
• Ethiopia is also gifted with crater lakes. These include the lakes at and around
Bishoftu, Wonchi (near Ambo), Hayk (near Dessie) and the Crater Lake on top of
Mount Zikwala.
• Lake Ashenge (Tigray) is formed on a tectonic basin.
• Cluster of lakes are lined up within main Ethiopian rift.
• Lake Abaya is the largest of all the lakes in the system.
• The southern tip of the Rift Valley forms the marshy land called the Chew
Bahirwhich is drained by Segan and Woito.
• Shala and Ziway are the shallowest and the deepest lakes in the central Ethiopian
Rift

Lake Area(sq. km) Max Depth (m)

Tana 3600 9
• Other types of lakes in
Abaya 1150 13
Ethiopia are man-made
such as Lakes Koka, Chamo 551 10
Fincha and Melka Wakena, Ziway 434 4
and many other lakes Shala 409 266
dammed following
hydroelectric power Koka 205 9
generation projects. Kabgabi 230 46
Abiyata 205 14
Awasa 229 10
Ashenge 20 25
Hayk 5 23
Major lakes of Ethiopia
4.3.3. Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia
• As compared to surface water resources, Ethiopia has lower ground water potential.
• However, there exists higher total exploitable groundwater potential.
• Climatic and geophysical conditions determine the availability of groundwater resource.
• Based on existing scanty knowledge, the groundwater potential of Ethiopia is estimated
to be 2.6 - 6.5 BMC.
• However, this estimate is now considered underestimated.
• Considering various separate studies, Ethiopian potential of groundwater is believed to
range between 12-30 BMC.0

4.4. Water Resources Potentials and Development in Ethiopia

• The potential of exploitable water in Ethiopia is huge, so why is our agriculture still
rainfed?
• What do you think are reasons that diminish the irrelevance of Ethiopian rivers for
transportation?
• The enormous water resource potential of Ethiopia is underutilized due to so many
factors.
• However, there are abundant opportunities that can transform the resource into our
collective social and economic needs.
• The followings are some of potential development uses of water resource of Ethiopia.
a) Hydro-electric Potential
• Ethiopian rivers have a very high potential for generating electricity.
• The exploitable potential of hydroelectric power is estimated at about 45000 megawatts.
• The first hydroelectric power generation plant was installed on Akaki River (Aba Samuel) in
1932.
• Currently many hydroelectric power dams are operating and many others are under
construction to realize Ethiopia‟s ambitious energy goals.
• Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the country‟s largest dam under construction
aiming to generate 6400 megawatts.
• Gilgel Gibe III hydropower project has gone operational generating 1870 megawatts.
• Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric power plants constructed on Lake Aba
Samuel, Koka, Tis Abay, Awash, Melka Wakena, Sor, Fincha, Gibe/Omo, Tana Beles and
Tekeze, generating close to 4000 megawatts of energy.
• Besides the domestic use of generated electricity, the country is exporting electricity to the
neighboring countries.
• The major problem related to the use of Ethiopian rivers for the generation of hydroelectric
power is the seasonal flow fluctuations and impact of climate change and variabilities.
• The severe erosion from the highlands and sedimentation in the reservoirs is also a critical
problem for hydroelectric power generation.
b) Irrigation and Transportation
• The terrain in Ethiopia is so rugged that it limits the uses of Ethiopian rivers both for
irrigation and transportation.
• In the highlands, steep slopes, rapids, waterfalls, narrow and deep valleys and gorges
are important obstacles.
• But on the lowlands, their demand for irrigation is high.
• Regardless of existing physiographic setups, Ethiopia‟s potential of irrigation is
estimated to be 5.3 million hectares.
• The Baro-Akobo and Genale Dawa river systems have large irrigation potential
compared to other basins.
• Despite the untapped irrigation practice, more than 60% of the area under irrigation so
far is located in Rift Valley Drainage System.
• Except few, majority of hydro-electric reservoirs are multi-purpose and are
expected to contribute for irrigation.
• Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transportation.
• The Baro at its lower course is the only navigable river. Comparatively,
Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation than rivers.
• Lake Tana and Abaya are relatively the most used for transportation.
c) Fishing and Recreation
• The majority of Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish.
• Currently the annual production of fish is estimated to be 31.5 thousand tons.
• The exploitable potential is however, by far greater than the current production.
• Exploitable fish potential in lakes varies.
• Currently Lake Tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000-10,000 tons per year.
• Fish production from Lake Chamo is estimated at 4,500 tons peryear.
• However, more than 60% of fish supplies are coming from Ethiopian main Rift Valley
lakes.
•  However, some of the lakes are currently threatened by sedimentation, invasive
species (water hyacinth), over exploitation and expansion of investments around
lakes.
• There are a variety of fish, birds and other aquatic life forms in the lakes.
• This and the scenic beauty of the lakes, the hot springs around them, the spectacular
river gorges and the most impressive waterfalls make Ethiopian rivers and lakes
important recreational and tourist attractions.
• As they are the natural habitat of a variety of wild life, some of which are only
endemic to Ethiopia, their value for scientific purposes is immense.
 Review Questions

1. Discuss the major drainage systems of Ethiopia.

2. Explain the hydroelectric and fishing potential of Ethiopian water
resource.
3. State the major characteristics of Ethiopian rivers?
4. How do you justify the origin and flow direction
of Ethiopian rivers?
 Chapter 5
The Climate of Ethiopia & the Horn
Unit contents
5.1 Introduction
2. Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
3. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of Temperature
and Rainfall in Ethiopia
4. Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and Response Mechanisms
1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia
2. Causes of Climate Change
3. Consequences of Climate Change
4. Climate Response Mechanisms
5.1 Introduction
• Ethiopia is characterized by a wide variety of altitudinal ranges and diverse climatic
conditions.
• Due to its closeness to the equator and the Indian Ocean, the country is subjected to
large temporal and spatial variations in elements of weather and climate.
• The climate of Ethiopia is therefore mainly controlled by the seasonal migration of the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and associated atmospheric circulations as
well as by the complex topography of the country.
Weather and Climate
• weather:is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
• It is the day- to-day state of the atmosphere.
• Is the air cold or hot? Wet or dry?
• Is the sky cloudy or clear?
• Is there rain or not?
• Is it windy or calm?
Climate
• The word climate originated from the ancient Greek word klima, which meant
inclination or slope of the sun‟s rays.
• Climate refers to the
• average weather‟ observed in a given region over a long period of time.
 Cont’d
• It is more than a simple statistical average. Rather climate is the aggregation of daily
seasonal weather events over a long period of time.
• Climate, refers to the „average condition‟ of the weather observed in an area over long
period of time (More than 30yrs)
• Therefore, it is the time scale that makes a difference between weather and climate.
• All sources of energy is the sun.
• The energy comes to surface of the earth varies with latitude and results in
atmospheric instability.
• Variation in temperature and other elements of weather are responsible to variability
and changes of weather and climate.
• NB both weather and climate refers to the condition of the atmosphere.
• But, weather specifically refers to the condition of the atmosphere at a specific time
observed in a relatively smaller area.
• Climate, on the other hand, refers to the “average condition‟ of the weather observed in an
area over long period of time.
• Therefore, it is the time scale that makes a difference between weather and climate.
• The climate of Horn of Africa is controlled by:
• The seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and
associated atmospheric circulations as well as by the complex topography of the
country
 Controls of climate Elements of weather & Results of a variety
climate of weather & climate
• Latitude (angle of the sun) • Radiation
• Altitude • Sunshine
• High &low pressure cells • Temperature Produce a variety
• Location / distance from • Precipitation weather and climate
the sea • Humidity
• Ocean currents • Evaporation
• Air movement

• The climate of any particular location on earth is determined by a combination of many

interacting factors. These include
• latitude,
• elevation,
• nearby water,
• ocean currents,
• topography,
• vegetation, and prevailing winds.
• The global climate system and any changes that occur
within it also influence local climate (microclimate).
Latitude
• Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator.
• Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn:
• The sun shines directly on equator for more hours during the year than anywhere else.
• As you move further away from the equator towards the poles, solar insolation varies
with seasons.
• Eg. When the sun is above the equater the NH will be summer and more solar
insolation is received.
• Ethiopia‟s latitudinal location has bearings on its temperature and resulted in:
• high average temperatures,
• high daily and small annual ranges of temperature,
• no significant variation in length of day and night between summer and
winter.

Rotation
• Rotation and Revolution ofEarth
• Rotation occurs when something is spinning around an axis.
• Rotation of the earth is the spinning of earth on its axis
• How do we know that the Earth rotates?
• Star trails- trails made with time exposure, circular paths that occur because the planet
is moving and not stationary.
• Winds curve because of the Earth‟s rotation.
• Ocean currents curve clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise in
the southern hemisphere.
• The movement of a pendulum. It does not actually move, it is the Earth moving that
causes the pendulum to appear to change the direction of its swing.

Revolution
• The Earth is revolves around the sun (orbit of the sun)
• One full revolution takes 3651/4 days (1year) What is the effects of revolution?
• Revolution effects
• Occurrence of Seasons
• Variation in the length of days and night
• Why vary seasons?
• The angle of the sun’s rays
• The length of the days
Seasons
• In Summer (in the Northern Hemisphere),
we get high angle sun and the days are
longer since sun is located above the
equator.

• In the Winter (in the northern

hemisphere), the Sun will be
in the southern hemisphere
and the days are shorter in
NH.

• Solstice is an event when the overhead sun appears to cross northern or southern
. points relative to the celestial equator resulting in unequal length of days and nights
in the hemispheres. Both hemispheres during this event has either the most or least
sunlight of the year.
• Equinox: An equinox is the instant of time when the sun strikes the plane of the
Earth's equator. During this passage the length of day and night are equal.
The summer Solstice:
• On June 21st, the NH has maximum tilt towards the sun experiencing
longest daylight of the year.
• It is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky, directly above 23
½ in the Tropic of Cancer.
The winter solstice:
• 22nd of December is the day when the maximum southward inclination is attained in
the Southern Hemisphere.
• In this event the sun travels shortest length causing longest night and
shortest daylight.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of
Capricorn, which is located at 23 ½ ° south of the equator.
• Equinox and Solstice:
• Spring/Vernal Equinox • March 21
• Summer Solstice • June 21
• Automn/Fall Equinox • September 22
• Winter Solstice • December 21
• Altitude
Altitude is the height of location above the sea level.
• Under normal conditions there is a general decrease in temperature with increasing
elevation.
• The average rate at which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change is known
as lapse rate. The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere named as
troposphere.
• The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per kilometer rise in altitude.
An adiabatic lapse rate
• The temperature changes occurring in the rising or subsiding air mass are not the
result of additions of heat to, or withdrawals of heat from outside sources, but
rather are the consequence of internal processes of expansion and contraction
• It is the rate at which the temperature of an air parcel changes in response to the
expansion or compression process associated with a change in altitude.
Types of lapse rate
• Dry adiabatic laps rate, Wet Adiabatic laps rate and Environmental lapse rate or
Atmospheric lapse late
Dry adiabatic laps rate:
• Vertical displacements of air are the major cause of adiabatic temperature changes.
• When air rises, it expands because there is less weight of air upon it. Thus, if a mass
of dry air at sea level rises to an altitude of about 18,000ft (5486.22 meters), the
pressure upon it is reduced by nearly half and consequently its volume is doubled.
• if the upward movement of air does not produce condensation, then the energy
expended by expansion will cause the temperature of the mass to fall at the constant
dry adiabatic lapse rate.
• The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every 1000 m of change in
elevation.

Wet Adiabatic laps rate

• When heat is added during condensation starts cooling following the expansion, the air will
no longer cool at the dry adiabatic rate.
• The heat is released in the process of ascent, therefore affecting or lowering the rate of
temperature change of the rising air.
• If saturated air containing water droplets were to sink, it would compress and warm at the
moist adiabatic rate because evaporation of the liquid droplets would start the rate of
compressional warming.
• Hence The rate at which rising or sinking saturated air changes its temperature is less than
the dry adiabatic rate.
• Prolonged cooling of air invariably produces condensation, thereby liberating latent
heat.
• Therefore, rising and saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate than air that is
unsaturated. This process is called wet adiabatic temperature change.
• The rate of cooling of wet air is approximately 50c per 1000 meters ascend.

Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric lapse late

• It is the actual, observed change of temperature with altitude.
• The fact that air temperature is normally highest at low elevations next to the earth and
decreases with altitude clearly indicates that most of the atmospheric heat is received
directly from the earth’s surface and only indirectly from the sun.
• But the lower layer is warmer, not only because it is closest to the direct source of heat
but also of its high density.
• It contains more water vapor and dust, which causes it to be a more efficient absorber
of earth radiation than is the thinner, drier, cleaner air aloft.
• The principal exception to the rule is the cause of temperature inversions. The rate of
change is 6.50C/1000 meters.
5.3. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of Temperature and Rainfall in
Ethiopia
• Temperature
• Spatial variation:
• Altitude and Latitude are the dominant factors for the temperature of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
• The location of Ethiopia is very proximate to equator where a zone of maximum
insolation and experience overhead sun twice a year.
• Particularly, Ethiopia, as it is a highland country, tropical temperature conditions have
no full spatial coverage.
• Environmental influences have their own traditional expressions for
temperature zones in Ethiopia.

Altitude Mean annual Local

(meter) Temp (0C) Description Equivalent

3,300 and above 10 or less Cool Wurch

2,300 - 3,300 10 – 15 Cool Temperate Dega
1,500 - 2,300 15 – 20 Temperate Woina Dega
500 - 1,500 20 – 25 Warm Temperate Kola
below 500 25 and above Hot Bereha
• Ethiopia‟s daily range of temperature is more extreme than its annual averages.
• Daily maximum temperature reaches to more than 37oC over the lowlands in
northeast and southeast.
• About 10oC-15oC over the northwestern and southwestern highlands.
• The monthly averages is minimal and the annual range of temperature is small.
This holds true in both the highlands and lowlands.
• In Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn, temperature shows seasonal variations.
• March to June in Ethiopia have records of highest temperatures. Conversely, low
temperatures are recorded from November to February.
• March to June is a time for the highest temperatures.
• November to February is the low temperatures recording time.
• seasonality is basically the result of the seasonal migration of the Inter tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and
• the seasonal distribution of the atmospheric pressure systems (both over land and
over the nearby Oceans) and the quasi stationary sub tropical anticyclones over
the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean.
• The major rainfall regimes of the country include four cases
• Group A of the rainfall regime corresponds with areas having a distinct wet and
a distinct dry season,
• Group B corresponds with areas having two wet and two dry seasons, and
• Group C corresponds with two wet and one dry season in between.
• The major basic reasons for the division of the country, in to the given rainfall
regimes can be ascribed to the combined effect of the major topographies of the
country with the associated orientation of the moisture bearing winds and the
North-South meridional movement of the ITCZ. Seasonal or Temporal
Variabilities
• What winds bring summer rainfall for Ethiopian highlands?
• The rainfall is highly variable both in amount and distribution across regions and
seasons.
• In high and mid-latitudes, seasons are classified as winter, spring, summer and
autumn, while in low latitudes they are categorized as wet and dry seasons.
• In the case of Ethiopia, air mass analysis of seasonality over the country
indicates that there are three major seasons over the country
Seasons of Ethiopia
i. Kiremt - Major rainy season (June, July, August, September)
ii. Belg - Minor Rainy season (February, March, April and May)
iii. Bega - Dry season (October, December, January and February)
• seasonality is basically the result of the seasonal migration of the Inter tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and
• the seasonal distribution of the atmospheric pressure systems (both over land and over
the near by Oceans) and the quasi stationary sub tropical anticyclones over the Indian
Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean

Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia

• i. Summer rainfall region
• This region comprises almost all parts of the country, except the southeastern and
northeastern lowlands.
• The region experiences most of its rain during summer (kiremt), while some places also
receive spring (Belg) rain.
ii. All year-round rainfall region
• It has many rainy days than any part of the country. It is a rainfall region in the
southwestern part of the country.
• Both duration and amount of rainfall decreases as we move from southwest to north
and eastwards. Months in summer gain highest rainfall whereas the winter months
receive the reduced amount
iii. Autumn and spring rainfall regions
• The region comprises areas receiving rain following the influence of southeasterly
winds.
• South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during autumn and spring seasons when
both the north easterlies and equatorial westerlies are weak.
• The average RF from less than 500 to 1,000 mm.
iv. Winter rainfall region
• This rainfall region receives rain from the northeasterly winds.
• During the winter season, the Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar region
receive their main rain.
•  
 5.4 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia

• As a result of the diversified altitude and climatic conditions, Ethiopia

possesses diverse agroclimatic zones.
• Traditionally zones are defined in terms of temperature. T
• This system divides the nation into five major climatic zones
• Bereha, Kolla, Woina Dega, Dega and Wurch. A description on each of the zones is
presented as follows.
Zones Altitude Mean Length of Mean annual ) Area
(m) annual growing temperature (0C) share
rainfall periods (%)
(mm) (days)
Wurch (cold to moist) >3,200 900-2200 211–365 Below 10 0.98
Dega (cool to humid) 2,300 - 3,200 900-1,200 121–210 ≥11.5–17.5 9.94
Weyna Dega (cool sub 1,500 - 2300 800-1,200 91–120 >17.5 – 20.0 26.75
humid)
Kola (Warm semiarid) 500 - 1,500 200-800 46–90 >20.0 – 27.5 52.94
Berha (Hot arid) <500 <200 0–45 >27.5 9.39
Wurch: Include mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna, Megezez in North Shoa, Batu,
Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.
Dega: Long inhabited and has dense human settlement due to reliable rainfall for
agriculture and absence of vector-born diseases such as malaria.
Weyna Dega
• About 26% of the landmass of Ethiopia.
• Area of suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia.
• The zone includes most of the agricultural land.
Kolla
• These Areas are: south, southeast, west and northeastern part.
• Rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
• The region is boundary between the hot arid (Bereha) and the humid
climates (Woina Dega).
Bereha
• confined to lowland areas.
• Around Danakil depression.
• Evapotranspiration is always in excess of rainfall.
• Include: Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of Eritrea.
 5.5. Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and Response
Mechanisms
• Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified
(e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer.
• It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural variability or
human activities.
• The majority of these resulted in famines.
• The severe drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by the strongest El Nino that
caused successive harvest failures and widespread livestock deaths in some region
 
 
Trends in Temperature Variability
• Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise per decade over the last
40-50 years. A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed
between 1960 and 2006.

Causes of Climate Change

A. Natural Causes: Earth orbital changes, Energy Budget, Volcanic eruptions……..
B. Anthropogenic Causes
• The growing influence of human activities on the environment is being increasingly
recognized, and concern over the potential for global warming caused by human
effects.
• Trends in Rainfall Variability
• Precipitation has remained fairly stable over the last 50 years when averaged over
the country.
• Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in many parts
of the country.
• In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline. For instance, parts of
southern, southwestern and south-eastern regions.
• Changes in temperature and rainfall
• Increase the frequency and severity of extreme events. Major floods have been a
common occurrence, leading to loss of life and property in numerous parts of the
country.
• Warming has exacerbated droughts, and desertification in the lowlands of the
country is expanding.
• The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 400 parts per
million in the last 150 years.
• Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth’s temperatures over
the past 50 years.
Consequences of Climate Change
• In many parts of the world, climate change has already caused loss of life, damaging
property and affecting livelihoods.
• The impact of climate change is higher in low income countries, since they have
limited capacity to cope with the changes.
• Impacts on human health, Impact on water resources. Impact on Agriculture.
Impact on Ecosystem….
Impacts on human health:
• The change can cause increased heat related mortality and morbidity, greater
frequency of infectious disease epidemics following floods and storms, and
substantial health effects following population displacement to escape extreme
weather events.
• Climate change also raises the incidence malaria. Impact on water resources:
• Climate change is leading to melting of snow and glaciers that increases rise in sea
level, increase drought and floods, distorts wind flow pattern, decreases water table.
• More frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount of run-off into rivers, streams
and lakes.
• Impact on Agriculture:
• Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns as well as significantly affect agricultural
production.
• Climate change increases physiological stress and fodder quality and availability.
• Impact on Ecosystem:
• Climate change affects the success of species, population, and community adaptation.
• The rate of climatic warming may exceed the rate of shifts in certain range species,
these species could be seriously affected or even disappear because they are unable to
resist.
Mitigation and Strategies Mitigation
• Technological change and substitution that reduce resource inputs and emissions per
unit of output.
• Although several social, economic and technological policies would produce an
emission reduction, with respect to climate change, mitigation means implementing
policies to reduce GHG emissions and enhance sinks.
• Mitigation is defined as any anthropogenic interventions that can either reduce the
sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (abatement) or enhance their sinks
(sequestration). “sinks” means the accumulation and store of these gases in oceans,
forests and soil.
• A mitigation assessment is a national-level analysis of the various technologies and
practices that have the capacity to mitigate climate change.
• Mitigation measures: Eg.
• Practice Energy efficiency
• Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
• Efficient means of transport implementation electric public transport, bicycle, shared
cars etc.

 
Adaptation and its Strategies
• Adaptation refers to initiatives and measures to reduce the vulnerability of natural and
human systems against actual or expected climate change effects.
• Various types of adaptation exist,
• Like anticipatory and reactive, private and public, and autonomous and planned.
• Examples are raising river or coastal
• dikes, the substitution of more temperature shock resistant plants for sensitive
ones, etc

Some of the major adaptation strategies:

• Building flood defenses,
• Plan for heat waves and higher temperatures,
• Installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and storm water
• Improve water storage and use is some of measures taken by cities and towns.
• Landscape restoration and reforestation,
• Flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes
• Preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues, etc).
 Chapter Six
6. Soils, Natural Vegetation &Wildlife Resources of Ethiopia &the Horn

6.1. Introduction
 The past geological process and varied climatic events ensured Ethiopia
to have varied soil and biological diversity (wildlife and natural
vegetation )
 Therefore, Ethiopia possess unique and characteristic fauna and flora
with a high level of endemicity.
 However, manmade as well as natural problems are threatening their
availability and distribution.
6.2. Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and Conservation
 6.2. Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and Conservation
6.2.1. Introduction
 Soil is composed of mineral particles, organic matter and living organisms in
dynamic equilibrium or temporal and spatial variations.
 This variability indicates primarily the parent material & the environment from
which the soil was formed.
 Composition of Soil: weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter (5%),
air (20- 30%) and water (20-30%).
 Soil formation: is a long-term process, it could take several thousands to
millions of years
 Soil Formation: Soil is the result of the interaction of five variables called
parent material, climate, topography, and living organism & time.
 Weathering: is the process by which all physical and chemical changes are produced in
rocks and regolith.
A. Mechanical (physical) weathering Cont’d
 Physical weathering: causes decrease in size of rocks/regolith by disintegration
without appreciably altering composition.
 Disintegration is result of diferential stresses like heating and cooling or
expansion of ice break the rock.
 Abrasion (erosion by friction) due to water containing sediment or wind
carrying debris is another type of physical weathering.
 Cont’d
B. Biological weathering
  The process of biological weathering involves the weakening and subsequent
disintegration of rock by plants, animals and microbes.
 Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s chemical
composition, thus making it more susceptible to weathering.
 Plants: growing roots, adding litter, dead parts of animal and plant
C. Chemical weathering Cont’d
• Chemical weathering involves the modification of the chemical and
mineralogical composition of the weathered material.
• The most common chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis, oxidation,
reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution.

Physical & Chemical Properties of Soil

 Physical properties:
 Soil properties such as texture, structure, porosity etc are categorized under
physical soil properties.
 These properties affect air &water movement in the soil, and thus the soil’s
ability to function.
 Chemical Properties:
 Soil chemistry is the interaction of various chemical constituents that takes
place among soil particles and in the water retained by soil.
 Refers to soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical conductivity,
soil pH, etc.
 Soil chemical properties affect soil biological activity and indirectly the
nutrient dynamics.
6.2.2 Major Soil Types in Ethiopia
  Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks.
 FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of 1:2,000,000.
 Out of the major soils, 11 soil associations cover about 87.4 % of the land area.
 The six major groups of soils in Ethiopia are discussed under the following points:
 Formation of the soil types,
 chemical and physical properties,
 agricultural suitability , and
 general location of the soil types.
1. Nitosols: develop on gently sloping ground.
 Their parent materials include trap series volcanics, volcanic ash, and even
metamorphic rocks.  
2. Acrisols have very low resilience to degradation and moderate sensitivity to
yield decline.
3. Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays when
wet, and cracks when dry.
4. Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol: These soils are mostly found in rugged
topography and steep slopes.
 There is little evidence of pedogenic processes as a result, they are young, shallow and
coarse textured and so have low water holding capacity.
5. Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial deposits.
 These soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine (lake)
deposits.
6. Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry seasons occur
in alternation.
1. Nitosols and Acrisols

2. Vertisols

3. Lithosols, Cambisols & Regosol

4. Xerosols, Yermosols & Solanchaks

5. Fluvisols

6. Luvisols
6.2.3. Soil Degradation
 is the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.
 It undermines the productive capacity of an ecosystem, affects global climate through
alterations in water and energy balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur, and other elements. Three types of Soil Degradation
I. Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of the physical properties of soil.
This includes:
 Compaction: densification of soil
 Soil erosion: detachment of individual soil particles, transportation and
deposition.
 In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons /hectare of soils is eroded annually.

II. Biological Degradation

  Reduction in soil organic matter content, decline in biomass carbon, and decrease
in activity and diversity of soil fauna are ramifications of biological degradation.
 It can also be caused by indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals and soil
pollutants.
III. Chemical Degradation
  Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical degradation.
 In addition, excessive leaching of cat-ions in soils with low-activity clays causes
a decline in soil pH and a reduction in base saturation.
 Chemical degradation is also caused by the buildup of some toxic chemicals and
an elemental imbalance that is injurious to plant growth.
6.2.4. Soil Erosion Control Measures
  The aim of soil conservation is to reduce erosion to a level at which the
maximum sustainable level of agricultural production & grazing can be obtained
from an area of land without unacceptable environmental damage.
 Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be prevented. But it can be reduced
to a maximum acceptable level or soil loss tolerance.
 Major soil erosion control mechanisms. Biological Control measures & Physical
control measures
a. Biological Control Measures: These types of soil erosion control mechanisms
include vegetative strips, plantation, and reforestation. Aim to increase soil fertility
b.  Physical control measures: includes terracing, check dams, gabion, trenches,
contour ploughing, soil bunds etc
 Aimed to decrease surface runoff & increase infiltration rate
6.3. Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
6.3. Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
6.3.1. Introduction
 Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that develops with little or no human
interference.
 Its distribution on the surface of the earth is uneven majorly controlled by
climate, soil types, drainage, etc.
 However, to large extent, temperature and precipitation affect the spatial
distribution and the original plant cover of a region.
 Natural vegetation are vital for human beings /Ecosystem
 Economic Importance: shelter, food, source of fuel, pasture and grazing, raw
material for industries, source of timber and non-timber products
 Ecological importance: moderating effect on local climate, as home of wild life,
medicinal values, minimizing soil erosion
 Ethiopia's natural vegetation is largely determined by elevation (and
temperature) and rainfall.
 Lowlands due to their low rainfall and high temperature have harsh
environment and are characterized by xeromorphic plants which are adapted to
drought & high temperatures
 Highlands (up to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands and where there is
adequate moisture a variety of forests can be seen.
 Plants growth is limited by low temperature mostly above 3000 m
 Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of higher plants of
which 10% are endemic.

6.3.2. Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia

 Based on altitude vegetation belts of Ethiopia is classified as Afro-alpine and
sub-afro alpine Region, Forest Region, Woodland Savannah Region, Steppe
Region & Semi-desert Region
I. Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region:
• high mountain vegetation is similar to the Alpine vegetation in temperate regions.
• These ecosystems are found on mountains having an elevation ranging between
3,200 and 4,620 masl
a. The Afro-alpine: found at very high altitudes (4,000 – 4,620 m).
 The Bale and Semein mountains are typical examples of afro-alpine vegetation.
 The annul precipitation ranges between 800 &1,500 mm.
 Vegetation: consists of tussock grasslands( Yeguasa-Sar) scrub, scattered mosses
and lichens.
 Dominant species: Lobelia rhynchopetalum (Jiberra)

b. Sub-afro-alpine: found between 3,300 and 4,000 meters

 less extreme environment than the Afro-alpine
 Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland, often degraded to scrub stages
and also wet grasslands.
 Dominant species: Erica arborea (Asta)
2. Forest Region
 Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees that shield earth and
support numerous life forms.
 Climate, soil types, topography and elevation determines the species type,
composition, structure ….of forests.
 In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations, 450 to 3,500m in humid parts
and 2,300 to 3,300m in most arid parts.
 Mean annual rainfall range between 200 & 2,200mm.
 Considering the above reasons Ethiopian forest can be categorized as Highlands and
Lowland forests.
1) Highland forests: include Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera (tid),
Arundinaria Alpina(kerkha), Podocarpus falcatus (zigba), Aningeria adolfi-
friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana (Weyra)
2) lowland forests: Baphia are classified as lowland forests
 Gallery (Riverine) Forests. These are forests that stretch along the banks of the
lower courses of rivers.
 3. Woodland Savannah Region
 Woodland savannah are known for their xeromorphic characteristics
 Woodland savannah can be broadly classified into three divisions:
 Juniper procera (tid) is dominant species for both the Junipers Forests and
Junipers Woodlands.
 Acacia woodlands are dominated by both trees and shrubs, which belong to the
same genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia etbaica(grar),Acacia mellifera (Konter).
 Mixed deciduous woodlands: most of the trees in mixed deciduous woodlands
shed their leaves during the dry season.

Woodland Altitude( m Mean Annual Growing Dominant species

savanna type ) RF (mm) season(No. of
months)
Junipers 1,350- 500-900 4-8 Junipers procera
woodland 2,200
Acacia woodland 250-2,300 200-1,000 1-9 Acaci
aetabica(Grar)
Mixed 300-1,300 800-1.400 5-12 Mixed trees
deciduous
woodland
4. Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
 Found in the arid and semiarid parts of the country where the temperature is
very high and the rainfall very low.
 Both are found at low elevations, the steppe at elevations of 100 to 1,400 masl
& the semi-deserts at 130 masl to 600 masl
  The steppe gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm as compared to 50 to
300 mm for the semi desert areas.
 soils in both regions are generally alkaline and saline.
 In these regions xerophytic (i.e. drought-resisting plants) are the dominant
vegetations.
 Xerophytic plants such as short shrubs, scattered tufts of grass species and a
variety of acacias are some of the examples.
 Trees are normally restricted to fringes along watercourses.
6.3.3. Natural vegetation Degradation
6.3.3. Natural vegetation Degradation
 Over the past century, a rapid growth of the Ethiopian population has led to
overexploitation of the land.
 Ethiopia's forest resources have been disappearing at an alarming rate.
 A century ago, forests covered about 40 % of the total land
 For the last few decades, forests have been cleared for different reasons.
 Major causes for the gradual disappearance of the natural vegetation in Ethiopia
are:
 Clearing of forests for cultivation
 Timber exploitation practices
 Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel
 Extensions of coffee and tea production areas
 Overgrazing
 Expansion of settlements and
 and clearing for construction.
Natural vegetation Degradation
6.3.4. Natural Vegetation Conservation
  There is an urgent need of conservation of the ever-degrading
natural vegetation. There are three main approaches of
biodiversity/ vegetation conservation:
 Protection: through designation and management of some form of
protected area. Protected areas include national parks &community
conservation areas.
 Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable harvesting of
forest products to provide a source of financial income
 Restoration or rehabilitation: is the process of assisting the recovery of a
forest ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.
6.4. Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia
6.4.1. Introduction
  Ethiopia is one of the few countries in the world, which possess unique and
characteristic fauna with a high level of endemicity.
 Existence of wide range of ecosystems endowed Ethiopia with great varieties of
habitats contributing for the occurrence of high faunal diversity.
 However, data on faunal resource of the country is limited to mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and a few groups of arthropods. Ethiopia has about
 860 avian species (16 endemic and two endemic genera),
 279 species of mammals (31 endemic and six endemic genera),
 201 species of reptiles (14 endemics pecies),
 23 species of amphibians (23 endemic species), and
 50 freshwater fish (6 endemic species)
 Wildlife cont’d
 Generally speaking, the main wild life concentrations in the
country occur in the southern and western parts. The wild animals
in Ethiopia can be classified into five major groups:
 Common wild animals (those animals that are found in many parts of the
country (e.g.hyenas, jackals)
 Game (lowland) animal, (which include many herbivores like giraffes,
wild asses, zebras etc. and carnivores like lions, leopards, and cheetahs)
 Tree animals or arboreals (which include monkeys, baboons)
 A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes
 Rare animals (gelada baboon and Semien fox) scattered in highlands;
walia- ibex in the Semien Massifs, Nyala in the Arsi Bale massifs).
6.4.2. Wildlife Conservation
  Wildlife plays an important role in several ways. The importance
of wildlife can be categorized as ecological importance, economic
importance, investigatory importance, conservation of biological
diversities etc.
 Wild animals can be used for:
 maintaining ecological balance
 physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)
 promotion of tourism (economic value)
 its potential for domestication
 scientific and educational researches (valuable information for
medical purposes and environmental studies)
Endemic Mammals in Ethio
 To prevent the destruction of wildlife a total area ofWildlife
nearly Conservation
100,000cont’d
square
kilometers of national parks, sanctuaries, community conservation areas,
botanical gardens, wildlife reserves etc. have been established in different part
of the country.
 Hence in Ethiopia there are:
 21 major national parks (see Table 6.2),
 2 major wildlife sanctuaries,
 3 wildlife reserves,
 6 community conservation areas,
 2 wildlife rescue centres,
 22 controlled hunting areas,
 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves
Map: Wildlife conservation areas in Ethiopia
6.4.3. Challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia
  Protected areas were created to protect the major biodiversity which are
vital to maintain the balance of Ecosystem.
 However, it is a sad fact that these ecologically fundamental resources are
usually undervalued and are under threat from various dimensions.
 Major challenges includes;
 Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
 Expansion of human settlement in protected areas.
 Conflict over resource
 Overgrazing (fodder and wood)
 Illegal wildlife trade & Excessive hunting
 Tourism and recreational pressure
 Mining and construction material extraction