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Logic!
ARVIN S. ENRIQUEZ
Instructor
Discrete Structures 1
Logic
• Crucial for mathematical reasoning
• Logic is a system based on propositions.
• A proposition is a statement that is either
true or false (not both).
• We say that the truth value of a proposition
is either true (T) or false (F).
• Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“Elephants are bigger than mice.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
What is the truth value
of the proposition? true
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“520 < 111”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
What is the truth value
of the proposition? false
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“y > 5”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? no
Its truth value depends on the value of y,
but this value is not specified.
We call this type of statement a
propositional function or open sentence.
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“Today is January 1 and 99 < 5.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
What is the truth value
of the proposition? false
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“Please do not fall asleep.”
Is this a statement? no
It’s a request.
Is this a proposition? no
Only statements can be propositions.
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“If elephants were red,
they could hide in cherry trees.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
What is the truth value
of the proposition? probably false
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The Statement/Proposition Game
“x < y if and only if y > x.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
… because its truth value does
not depend on specific
values of x and y.
What is the truth value
of the proposition? true
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Simple Proposition
A proposition that
conveys one thought with
no connecting words.
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Combining Propositions
As we have seen in the previous examples,
one or more propositions can be combined
to form a single compound proposition.
We formalize this by denoting propositions
with letters such as p, q, r, s, and
introducing several logical operators.
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NEGATION
The negation of a given statement is a
statement that is false whenever the given
statement is true, and true whenever the given
statement is false.
The negation can be obtained by inserting the word
NOT in the given statement of by prefixing it with
phrases such as “It is not the case that…”
The Negation of the statement “Herbert is good”
can be written as:
“Herbert is not good.” OR
“It is not the case that Herbert is good.”
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CONJUNCTION
Two simple propositions
connected using the word AND.
Example:
“Today is Friday and tomorrow is Saturday”
“Roel was on time, but Tom was late”
“Roel was on time and Tom was late”
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DISJUNCTION
Two simple propositions that are
connected using the word OR.
Example:
“I will pass the Math Exam or I will be
promoted.”
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CONDITIONAL
Two simple propositions that are connected using the words
if … then.
Example:
“If you will recite the poem, then you will pass the oral
examination”
-The statement between the if and then is called the
antecedent of the conditional. The sentence that follows
then is called the consequent.
The example can also be written as:
a. If you will recite the poem, you will pass the oral
examination; or
b. You will pass the oral examination if you will recite the poem.
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BICONDITIONAL
Conjunction of two conditional
statements where the antecedent and
consequent of the first statement have
been switched in the second statement.
Example:
“If two sides of a triangle are congruent,
then the angle opposite them are
congruent, and if two angles of a triangle
are congruent, then the sides opposite
them are congruent.”
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SYMBOLS
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Applications:
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Parenthesis in symbolic statements are used to tell
what type of statements are being considered. If
there are no parentheses, we follow the dominance of
connectives. The list below gives the connectives in
their dominant order (from the strongest to the
weakest).
1. Biconditional
2. Conditional
3. Disjunction, Conjunction
4. Negation
Note: The conjunction and disjunction are of equal
value.
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TRUTH TABLE
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Logical Operators (Connectives)
We will examine the following logical operators:
• Negation (NOT)
• Conjunction (AND)
• Disjunction (OR)
• Exclusive or (XOR)
• Implication (if – then)
• Biconditional (if and only if)
Truth tables can be used to show how these
operators can combine propositions to
compound propositions.
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Negation (NOT)
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Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
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Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
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Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P Q P Q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
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Implication (if - then)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
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Biconditional (if and only if)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
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Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.
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Statements and Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.
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Equivalent Statements
The statements (PQ) and (P) (Q) are logically
equivalent, since (PQ) (P) (Q) is always true.
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Tautologies and Contradictions
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Tautologies and Contradictions
Discrete Structures 33
Propositional Functions
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.
Let us call this propositional function P(x), where
P is the predicate and x is the variable.
What is the truth value of P(2) ? false
What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
Discrete Structures 34
Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.
Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the
variables.
What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true
What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
Discrete Structures 35
Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a propositional function.
Universally quantified sentence:
For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.
Using the universal quantifier :
x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”
(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a
proposition, not a propositional function.)
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Universal Quantification
Example:
S(x): x is a UMBC student.
G(x): x is a genius.
What does x (S(x) G(x)) mean ?
“If x is a UMBC student, then x is a genius.”
or
“All UMBC students are geniuses.”
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Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true.
Using the existential quantifier :
x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”
(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a
proposition, but no propositional function.)
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Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a UMBC professor.
G(x): x is a genius.
What does x (P(x) G(x)) mean ?
“There is an x such that x is a UMBC professor
and x is a genius.”
or
“At least one UMBC professor is a genius.”
Discrete Structures 39
Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.
What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?
“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”
Is it true? yes
Is it true for the natural numbers? no
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Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so
that P(c) is false.
Statements such as x (P(x) Q(x)) can be
disproved by simply providing a counterexample.
Statement: “All birds can fly.”
Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.
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Negation
(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).
(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).
See Table 3 in Section 1.3.
I recommend exercises 5 and 9 in Section 1.3.
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Logical Equivalences
• Identity Laws: p T p and p F p.
• Domination Laws: p T T and p F F.
• Idempotent Laws: p p p and p p p.
• Double Negation Law: ( p) p.
• Commutative Laws:
(p q) (q p) and (p q) (q p).
• Associative Laws: (p q) r p (q r)
and (p q) r p (q r).
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Logical Equivalences
• Distributive Laws:
p (q r) (p q) (p r) and
p (q r) (p q) (p r).
• DeMorgan’s Laws:
(p q) ( p q) and
(p q) ( p q).
• Absorption Laws:
p (p q) p and p (p q) p.
• Negation Laws: p p T and p p F.
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Examples
• Find the truth table of [p (q r)].
• (An important Theorem) Show that:
p q p q.
• Show the Corollary: (p q) p q.
• Using the tables on page 24, verify the
Absorption Laws:
p (p q) p, and
p (p q) p.
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Examples
• Negate:
(a) For each integer, n, if 4 divides n, then
2 divides n.
(b) xR, yR [x y] [y (x + 1)].
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