Chapter 10

Quality Control

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Chapter 10: Learning Objectives
You should be able to:
LO 10.1 Explain the need for quality control
LO 10.2 Discuss the basic issues of inspection
LO 10.3 List and briefly explain the elements of the control process
LO 10.4 Explain how control charts are used to monitor a process, and
the concepts that underlie their use
LO 10.5 Use and interpret control charts
LO 10.6 Perform run tests to check for nonrandomness in process
output
LO 10.7 Assess process capability

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 What is Quality Control?
Quality control
 A process that evaluates output relative to a standard
and takes corrective action when output doesn’t meet
standards
If results are acceptable no further action is required
Unacceptable results call for correction action
 Inspection alone is not is generally not sufficient to
achieve a reasonable level of quality
Most organization rely upon some inspection and a great
deal of process control to achieve an acceptable level of
quality

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 Phases of Quality Assurance

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 Inspection
Inspection
 An appraisal activity that compares goods or services to a
standard
 Inspection issues:
1. How much to inspect and how often
2. At what points in the process to inspect
3. Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site location
4. Whether to inspect attributes or variables

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 How Much to Inspect

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 Where to Inspect in the Process
Typical inspection points:
 Raw materials and purchased parts
 Finished products
 Before a costly operation
 Before an irreversible process
 Before a covering process

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 Centralized vs. On-Site Inspection
 Effects on cost and level of disruption are a major
issue in selecting centralized vs. on-site inspection
 Centralized
 Specialized tests that may best be completed in a lab
 More specialized testing equipment
 More favorable testing environment
 On-Site
 Quicker decisions are rendered
 Avoid introduction of extraneous factors
 Quality at the source

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Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Quality control seeks
 Quality of conformance
A product or service conforms to specifications

A tool used to help in this process:

 SPC
Statistical evaluation of the output of a process
Helps us to decide if a process is “in control” or if corrective
action is needed

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Process Variability
Two basic questions: concerning variability:
1. Issue of process control
 Are the variations random? If nonrandom variation
is present, the process is said to be unstable.
2. Issue of process capability
 Given a stable process, is the inherent variability of
the process within a range that conforms to
performance criteria?

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Variation
Variation
 Random (common cause) variation:
 Natural variation in the output of a process, created by
countless minor factors
 Assignable (special cause) variation:
 A variation whose cause can be identified
A nonrandom variation

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Sampling and Sampling Distribution
SPC involves periodically taking samples of process
output and computing sample statistics:
 Sample means
 The number of occurrences of some outcome
Sample statistics are used to judge the randomness of
process variation

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 Control Process
 Sampling and corrective action are only a part of the
control process
 Steps required for effective control:
 Define: What is to be controlled?
 Measure: How will measurement be accomplished?
 Compare: There must be a standard of comparison
 Evaluate: Establish a definition of out of control
 Correct: Uncover the cause of nonrandom variability and fix it
 Monitor: Verify that the problem has been eliminated

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 Control Charts: The Voice of the Process
Control chart
 A time ordered plot of representative sample statistics
obtained from an ongoing process (e.g. sample means),
used to distinguish between random and nonrandom
variability
 Control limits
The dividing lines between random and nonrandom
deviations from the mean of the distribution
Upper and lower control limits define the range of acceptable
variation

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 Control Chart

Each point on the control chart represents a sample of n

observations

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 Errors
 Type I error
 Concluding a process is not in control when it actually is.
 The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the null
hypothesis is true.
 Manufacturer’s risk

 Type II error
 Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
 The probability of failing to reject the null hypothesis when the null
hypothesis is false.
 Consumer’s risk

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 Type I Error

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 Observations from Sample Distribution

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 Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured
 Mean control charts
Used to monitor the central tendency of a process
 “x-bar” charts

 Range control charts

Used to monitor the process dispersion
 R charts

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 Establishing Control Limits
k

R
k

 xi i

x i 1 R i 1

k k
where where
x  Average of sample means R  Average of sample ranges
x i  mean of sample i Ri  Range of sample i
k  number of samples

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 X-Bar Chart: Control Limits
Used to monitor the central tendency of a process

x  chart Control Limits

UCLx  x  A2 R

LCLx  x  A2 R
where
A2  a control chart factor based on sample size, n

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 Range Chart: Control Limits
Used to monitor process dispersion

R Chart Control Limits

UCLR  D4 R
LCLR  D3 R
where
D3  a control chart factor based on sample size, n
D4  a control chart factor based on sample size, n

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 Factors for Three Sigma Control Charts

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 Mean and Range Charts

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 Using Mean and Range Charts
 To determine initial control limits:
 Obtain 20 to 25 samples
 Compute appropriate sample statistics
 Establish preliminary control limits
 Determine if any points fall outside of the control limits
 If you find no out-of-control signals, assume the process is in control
 If you find an out-of-control signal, search for and correct the
assignable cause of variation
 Resume the process and collect another set of observations on
which to base control limits
 Plot the data on the control chart and check for out-of-control
signals

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 Control Charts for Attributes
Attributes generate data that are counted.
 p-chart
Control chart used to monitor the proportion of defectives in
a process
 c-chart
Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per unit

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 Use a p-chart:
When observations can be placed into two
categories
 Good or bad
 Pass or fail
 Operate or don’t operate

When the data consists of multiple samples of

several observations each

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 p-chart Control Limits

Total number of defectives

p
Total number of observatio ns
p (1  p )
ˆ p 
n
UCL p  p  z (ˆ p )
LCL p  p  z (ˆ p )

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 Use a c-chart:
Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of
measure can be counted; non-occurrences cannot be
counted.
 Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
 Cracks or faults per unit of distance
 Breaks or tears per unit of area
 Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
 Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

UCLc  c  z c
LCLc  c  z c
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 Managerial Considerations
At what points in the process to use control charts
What size samples to take
Sample frequency
What type of control chart to use
 Variables
 Attributes

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 Run Tests
 Even if a process appears to be in control, the data may
still not reflect a random process
 Analysts often supplement control charts with a run
test
 Run test
 A test for patterns in a sequence
 Run
 Sequence of observations with a certain characteristic

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 Nonrandom Patterns

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 Process Capability
 Once a process has been determined to be stable, it is
necessary to determine if the process is capable of
producing output that is within an acceptable range
 Tolerances or specifications
 Range of acceptable values established by engineering design or
customer requirements
 Process variability
 Natural or inherent variability in a process
 Process capability
 The inherent variability of process output (process width)
relative to the variation allowed by the design specification
(specification width)

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 Process Capability (cont.)
Lower Upper
Specification Specification Lower Upper
Specification Specification

Process variability (width)

Process variability (width)
exceeds specifications
matches specifications width

Lower Upper
Specification Specification

Process variability (width) is less

than the specification width

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 Cp

UTL - LTL
Cp 
6
where
UTL  upper tole rance (specifica tion) limit
LTL  lower tole rance(spec ification) limit

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 Cpk
Used when a process is not centered at its target, or
nominal, value

C pk  min C pu , C pl 
 UTL  x x  LTL 
 min  , 
 3 3 

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 Improving Process Capability
Simplify
Standardize
Mistake-proof
Upgrade equipment
Automate

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 Taguchi Loss Function

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 Limitations of Capability Measures
There are several risks of using capability
measures:
The process may not be stable
The process output may not be normally distributed

The process not centered but Cp is used

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Operations Strategy
Quality is a primary consideration for nearly all
customers
 Achieving and maintaining quality standards is of
strategic importance to all business organizations
Product and service design
Increase capability in order to move from extensive use of
control charts and inspection to achieve desired quality
outcomes

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