SIGNAL

GENERATORS
unit III

K . V. V E N K AT E S WA R A R A O
Fixed frequency AF Oscillators

Many instrument circuits contain oscillator as one of its integral parts to provide output signal
within the specified fixed audio frequency range. This specified audio frequency range can be 1 KHz signal
or 400 Hz signal.
The 1 KHz frequency signal is used to excite a bridge circuit and 400 Hz frequency signal is used for
audio testing. A fixed frequency AF oscillator employs an iron core transformer. Due to this a positive
feedback is obtained through the inductive coupling placed between the primary winding and secondary
winding of the transformer and hence fixed frequency oscillations are generated.
 Variable frequency AF Oscillators

It is a general purpose oscillator used in laboratory. It generates oscillations within the entire audio
frequency range i.e. from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. This oscillator provides a pure, constant sine wave output
throughout this AF range. The examples of variable AF oscillators are used in laboratory are RC feedback
oscillator, beat frequency oscillator.
Standard signal generator
A standard signal generator produces known and controllable voltages.

It is used as power source for the measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio (S/N), bandwidth,
standing wave ratio and other properties.

It is extensively used in the testing of radio receivers and transmitters. The instrument is
provided with a means of modulating the carrier frequency, which is indicated by the dial setting
on the front panel. The modulation is indicated by a meter.

The output signal can be Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM). Modulation
may be done by a sine wave, square wave, triangular wave or a pulse
The elements of a conventional signal generator are shown in Fig. 3.1.

The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable RF oscillator using an LC tank circuit,

having a constant output over any frequency range.

The frequency of oscillations is indicated by the frequency range control and the vernier dial setting.

AM is provided by an internal sine wave generator or from an external source.

Since range switching is usually accomplished by selecting appropriate capacitors, any change in frequency
range upsets the circuit design to some extent and the instrument must be given time to stabilize at the new
resonant frequency.

In high frequency oscillators, it is essential to isolate the oscillator circuit from the output circuit.

This isolation is necessary, so that changes occurring in the output circuit do not affect the
oscillator frequency, amplitude and distortion characteristics.

Buffer amplifiers are used for this purpose.

The square wave generator and pulse generator are generally used as measuring devices in combination
with the oscilloscope.

The basic difference between square wave generator and pulse generator is in the duty cycle. The duty
cycle is defined as the ratio of average value of a pulse over one cycle to the peak value. It is also defined as
ratio of the pulse width to the period of one cycle.
 Duty cycle of square wave
Duty cycle is represented in fig.3.3.The average value is half of peak value. Both the average and peak value are
inversely proportional to time duration. The average value of a pulse is given as, 1 Average value = 1/2 Peak value.
Duty cycle of square wave = 0.5
Thus square wave generator produces an output voltage with equal ON and OFF periods as duty cycle is 0.5
or 50% as the frequency of oscillation is varied. Then it is said that irrespective of the frequency of operation, the
positive and negative half cycles extend over half of the total period
Basic generating loop
Block diagram of a pulse generator
The circuit consists of two current sources as shown in fig.3.4, a ramp capacitor, and
Schmitt trigger circuit as well as current switch circuit.
The two current sources provide a constant current to the capacitor for charging and
discharging. The ratio of these charging and discharging current is determined by setting
of symmetry control.
The symmetry control determines duty cycle of output waveform. In the current source,
an appropriate control voltage is applied to current control transistors which controls the
frequency i.e. sum of two currents.
The multiplier switch provides decade switching control output frequency. While
frequency dial provides continuous vernier control of output frequency. The basic circuit
for pulse generation is the asymmetrical multi-vibrator
The function generator as shown in fig.3.6 is an instrument which generates
different types of waveforms. The frequency of these waveforms can be vanier
over wide range.
The most required common waveforms are sine wave, saw tooth wave, triangular
wave, and square wave. These various outputs of the generator are available
simultaneously.
It may require square wave for testing linearity measurements in audio system.
At the same time, a sawtooth output is required to drive horizontal deflection
amplifier of an oscilloscope which gives visual display of the measurements.
The purpose of providing simultaneous waves is fulfilled by the function
generator.
Block diagram of function generator
The frequency controlled voltage is used to regulate two current sources namely upper
and lower current source. The upper current source supplies constant current to an
integrator. The output voltage of integrator then increases linearly with time. If the
current, charging the capacitor increases or decreases, the slope of output voltage
increases or decreases respectively. Hence this controls frequency.
The voltage comparator multi-vibrator circuit changes the state of the network
when the output voltage of integrator equals the maximum predetermined upper level.
Because of this change in state, the upper current source is removed and the lower
current source is switched ON. This lower current source supplies opposite current to
the integrator circuit.
 function generator
The output of integrator decreases linearly with time. When this output voltage equals maximum
predetermined upper level on negative side, the voltage comparator multi-vibrator again changes the
condition of the network by switching OFF the lower current source and switching ON the upper current
source. The output voltage of the integrator has triangular waveform. The frequency of this triangular
waveform is determined by the magnitudes of the currents supplied by upper and lower current source. To
get square wave, the output of the integrator is passed through comparator.
The voltage comparator delivers square wave output voltage of same frequency as
that of input triangular waveform. The sine wave is derived from triangular wave.
The triangular wave is synthesized into sine wave using diode resistance network.
In this shaper circuit, the slope of triangular wave is changed as its amplitude
changes. This results in a sine wave with less than 1% distortion. The two output
amplifiers provide two simultaneous, individually selected outputs of any of the
waveform functions.
The function of signal generators is to supply signals of known amplitude and
known frequency. The signal generators are used to supply signal levels at very
low levels for the testing of receivers.
But it is very difficult to measure and calibrate a signal at a very low level. Thus
attenuators are used in function generators. It is a device which reduces power
level of a signal by fixed amount.
Sweep Generator
 It provides a sinusoidal output voltage whose frequency varies smoothly and continuously over an
entire frequency band, usually at an audio rate. The process of frequency modulation may be
accomplished electronically or mechanically.
It is done electronically by using the modulating voltage to vary the reactance of the oscillator tank
circuit component, and mechanically by means of a motor driven capacitor, as provided for in a modern
laboratory type signal generator.
Fig.3.7 shows a basic block diagram of a sweep generator. The frequency sweeper provides a
variable modulating voltage which causes the capacitance of the master oscillator to vary. A
representative sweep rate could be of the order of 20 sweeps/second.
 A manual control allows independent adjustment of the oscillator resonant
frequency. The frequency sweeper provides a varying sweep voltage synchronization
to drive the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. 
Thus the amplitude of the response of a test device will be locked and displayed
on the screen. To identify a frequency interval, a marker generator provides half
sinusoidal waveforms at any frequency within the sweep range.
The marker voltage can be added to the sweep voltage of the CRO during
alternate cycles of the sweep voltage, and appears superimposed on the response
curve. 
 The automatic level control circuit is a closed loop feedback system which
monitors the RF level at some point in the measurement system.
This circuit holds the power delivered to the load or test circuit constant and
independent o frequency and impedance changes.
A constant power level prevents any source mismatch and also provides a
constant readout calibration with frequency.
Random Noise Generator
The spectrum of random noise covers all frequencies the lower density spectrum tells us how the
energy of the signal is distributed in frequency, but it does not specify the signal uniquely nor does it
tell us very much about how the amplitude of the signal varies with time.
The spectrum does not specify the signal uniquely because it contains no phase information. 
The method of generating noise is usually to use a semi conductor noise which delivers frequencies
in a band roughly extending from 80 – 220 KHz
The output from the noise diode is amplified and heterodyned down to audio frequency band by
means of a balanced symmetrical modulator.
The filter arrangement controls the bandwidth and supplies an output signal in three
spectrum choices, white noise, pink noise and Usasi noise. 

From the Fig.3.8 it is seen that white noise is flat from 20Hz to 20 KHz and has upper cut-
off frequency of 50 kHz with a cut-off slope of -12 dBs/ octave.

 Pink noise is so called because the lower frequencies have larger amplitude, similar to red
light.  Pink noise has a voltage spectrum which is inversely proportional to the square root
of frequency and is used in band analysis.

Usasi noise ranging simulates the energy distribution of speech and music frequencies and
is used for testing audio amplifiers and loud speakers.
 OVERVIEW AND IT’S OBJECTIVE

 
The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for the development of electronic
circuits and systems, and has been one of the more important tools in the development of modern
electronics. The cathode ray oscilloscope is a device that displays electrical signals such as voltage, current,
power and frequency, primarily as a function of time. The oscilloscope depends on the movement of an
electron beam, which is then made visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor surface, which
produces a visible spot. If the electron beam is deflected in either of two orthogonal axes, such as the
familiar X and Y axes used in conventional graph construction, the luminous spot can be used to create two-
dimensional displays.
oscilloscope
The heart of the oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube, which generates the
electron beam, accelerates the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to
create the image, and contains the phosphor screen where the electron beam
eventually becomes visible.
To accomplish these tasks, various electrical signals and voltages are required,
Relatively high voltages are required by cathode ray tubes, in the order of a few
thousand volts for acceleration's as well as a low voltage for the heater of the
electron gun, which emits the electrons
. The strength of the electric field is categorized by the amount of force a charged particle would
experienced in the field and is described by e = f/q.

The deflection sensitivity S of a CRT is defined as the deflection on the screen per volt of
deflection voltage.

S=D/E The deflection sensitivity and deflection factor indicate that the sensitivity of a CRT is
independent of the deflection voltage but varies linearly with the accelerating potential.
The front of the CRT is called the face plate which converts electrical signal in to light in accordance with
the variation of vertical input signal. It is also feasible to have a small fiber optic region which is direct
contact exposure of photographic film. The inside surface of the face plate is coated with phosper.
The effects of the characteristics of phosper are its luminance efficiency, spectral emission and persistence.
Many types of phosper are used for CRT.
A phosper must be refreshed by electrons before end of its decay time in order to give a flicker
free display.

Short persistence phosper require more frequent refresher, where as long persistence
phosper may result in characters feeding slowly.

Long persistence prospers more prone to permanent discoloration, and loss of luminance
efficiency. Long persistence is even needed storage type oscilloscopes.
The luminance of phosper is measure of its brightness. It is determined by the luminance
efficiency of phosper
1. The metal layer acts as a heat sink and reduces the danger of phosper burn.
2. The light scatter from the phosper is reduced and the aluminum reflects light going back
in the tube towards the viewer, so it increases the brightness
3. Electron are strike the phosper the screen, causes released the secondary electrons.
These electrons are collected by Aquadag coating.
Dual Beam CRO
A Dual Beam CRO consists of two separate electron guns, two sets of VDPs
and a single set of HDPs. Since a single set of HDPs is used only one beam can
be synchronized at a time.
The Sweep produced by the Time Base Generator is common for both channels;
hence the signals must have the same frequency or must be related harmonically
in order to obtain both beams locked on the CRTs.
Dual Trace CRO
Alternate mode:
 
 When the switch is in the ALTERNATE position, electronic switch feeds each signal
alternately to the Vertical Amplifier.
 ALTERNATE mode, the switching frequency is as saw tooth (time base) signal frequency.
 The electronic switch alternately connects the main Vertical Amplifier to channels A and B and
at same time adds a different DC offset component to each signal.
 This DC component directs the beam alternately to the upper or lower half of the screen, i.e.
the input to channel A is traced in the upper half of the screen then the input to channel B is
traced in the lower half.
 The repetition frequency is usually so high that the waveforms appear to be displayed
simultaneously. The alternate mode is preferred for high frequency inputs.
 CHOP mode
When the switch is In the CHOP mode position, the duration of saw tooth (time base) signal is divided into
small segments and the electronic switch moves between the two inputs with the frequency of these
segments (i.e. a very high rate). So the switch successively connects small segments of A and B waveforms
to the main Vertical Amplifier at a relatively fast chopping rate.
 
 If the chopping rate is slow, the continuity of the display will be lost. So,
 The chop mode is preferred for low frequency inputs.
Digital storage CRO
Digital storage oscilloscope are available in processing and non-processing
types. Processing types include built in computing power, which takes
advantage of the fact that all data is already in digital form.

The inclusion of interfacing and a microprocessor provides a complete

(Units with built in hard copy plotters are particularly useful, since they
can serve as digital scope high speed recorders, tabular printers and X-Y
plotters, all in one unit, with computing power and an 8½" x 11" paper/ink
printout.)
 Non-processing digital scopes are designed as replacements for analog
instruments for both storage and non-storage types. Their many desirable
features may lead to replace analog scopes entirely (within the
Bandwidth range where digitization in feasible).

The basic principle of a digital scope is given in Fig. 7.51. The scope
operating controls are designed such that all confusing details are placed
on the back side and one appears to be using a conventional scope.

However, some digital scope panels are simpler also, most digital
scopes provide the facility of switching selectable to analog operation as
one of the operating modes.
 The basic advantage of digital operation is the storage capability, the
stored waveform can be repetitively read out, thus making transients
appear repetitively and allowing their convenient display on the scope
screen. (The CRT used in digital storage is an ordinary CRT, not a
storage type CRT.)
Furthermore, the voltage and time scales of display are easily changed
after the waveform has been recorded, which allows expansion
(typically to 64 times) of selected portions, to observe greater details.
 A cross-hair cursor can be positioned at any desired point on the
waveform and the voltage/time values displayed digitally on the screen,
and/or readout electrically.
Some scopes use 12 bit converters, giving 0.025% resolution and 0.1%
accuracy on voltage and time readings, which are better than the 2-5% of
analog scopes.
Split screen capabilities (simultaneously displaying live analog traces
and replayed stored ones) enable easy comparison of the two signals.
 Pretrigger capability is also a significant advantage. The display of stored data is
possible in both amplitude versus time and X-Y modes.
In addition to the fast memory readout used for CRT display, a slow readout is
possible for producing hard copy with external plotters.
When more memory than the basic amount (typically 4096 points/words) is needed,
a magnetic disk accessory allows expansion to 32,000 points.
All digital storage scopes are limited in bandwidth by the speed of their AID
converters.
However, 20 MHz digitizing rates available on some scopes yield a 5 MHz
bandwidth, which is adequate for most applications
Consider a single channnel of Fig. 7.51. The analog voltage input signal is digitised in a 10 bit
AID converter with a resolution of 0.1% (1 part in 1024) and frequency response of 25 kHz.

The total digital memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels
each and 1024 for four channels each. The analog input voltage is sampled at adjustable rates (up
to I 00,000 samples per second) and data points are read onto the memory.

A maximum of 4096 points are storable in this particular instrument. (Sampling rate and
memory size are selected to suit the duration and waveform of the physical event being
recorded.)
 Once the sampled record of the event is captured in memory, many
useful manipulations are possible, since memory can be read out without
being erased.
If the memory is read out rapidly and repetitively, an input event which
was a single shot transient becomes a repetitive or continuous waveform
that can be observed easily on an ordinary scope (not a storage scope).
The digital memory also may be read directly (without going through
DAC) to, say, a computer where a stored program can manipulate the
data in almost any way desired.
Pre-triggering recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger
points to be recorded. In ordinary triggering the recording process is
started by the rise of the input (or some external triggering) above some
preset threshold value.
 As in digital recorder, DSO can be set to record continuously (new data coming into
the memory pushes out old data, once memory is full), until the trigger
signal is received; then the recording is stopped, thus freezing data received prior to
the trigger signal in the memory.
An adjustable trigger delay allows operator control of the stop point, so that the trigger may
occur near the beginning, middle or end of the stored information
THANK YOU