5. RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

Characteristics of RVF
• Pronounced curvature streamline
• Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)
• Example: Hydraulic Jump
RVF vs GVF
 Pronounced curvature
 hydrostatic pressure distribution cannot be assumed
 Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance
 Effect of boundary friction is comparatively small, which would
play a primary role in a GVF
ÞIn RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much
greater than unity and cannot be accurately determined
 Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid
boundaries. (Because profiles could be broken)
 Approach to the problem

• The theory that assumes:

• Parallel flow,
• Hydrostatic distribution of pressure- Does not apply in RVF
computation
• For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation can be
established,
• Approach to the solution of such equation
– Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)
– Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)
 Various RVF phenomena are treated as isolate cases
• Three isolated cases
– Hydraulic jump
– Flow over spillway
– Flow under gate
 1. Hydraulic Jump

 When the rapid change in the depth of flow is from a low stage
to a high stage, the result is usually and abrupt rise of water
surface
 A hydraulic jump occurs when a supercritical stream meets a
subcritical stream of sufficient depth. The supercritical stream
jumps up to meet its alternate depth
 While doing so it generates considerable disturbances in the
form of large-scale eddies and a reverse flow roller with the
result that the jump falls short of its alternate depth
 The theory of jump developed is for horizontal or slightly
inclined channels in which the weight of water in the jump has
little effect upon the jump behavior and hence is ignored in the
analyses
Figure above is a schematic sketch of a typical hydraulic jump
in a horizontal channel. Section 1, where the incoming
supercritical stream undergoes an abrupt rise in the depth
forming the commencement of the jump, is called the toe of the
jump
• The jump proper consists of a steep change in the water-surface
elevation with a reverse flow roller on the major part. The roller
entrains considerable quantity of air and the surface has white,
frothy and choppy appearance. The jump, while essentially
steady, will normally oscillate about a mean position in the
longitudinal direction and the surface will be uneven
• Section 2 which lies beyond the roller and with all essentially
level water surface is called the end of the jump and the distance
between sections 1 and 2 is the length of the jump, L j . The
initial depth of the supercritica1stream is y1 and y2 is the final
depth, after the jump, of the subcritical stream. As indicated
earlier, y1 wil1be smaller than the depth alternate to y2
• The two depths y1 and y2 at the ends of the jump are called
sequent depths
• Due to high turbulence and shear action of the roller, there is
considerable loss of energy in the jump between sections 1 and
2
• In view of the high energy loss, the nature of which is difficult to
estimate, the energy equation cannot be applied to sections 1 and
2, to relate the various flow parameters. In such situations, the use
of the momentum equation with suitable assumptions is
advocated. In fact, the hydraulic jump is a typical example
where a judicious use of the momentum equation yields
meaningful results
 Practical Applications
• To dissipate energy in water flowing over a dam, weir, spillway,
sluice gate and other hydraulic structures and thus prevent
scouring of downstream (d/s) from the structure
• To recover head or raise the water level on the d/s side of a
measuring flume and thus maintains high water level in the
channel for water distribution purposes
• To increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by
raising the water depth on the apron
• To mix chemical used for water purification
• To aerate water for city water supplies
• To aid in the desalination of sea water
• To help in the aeration of streams which are polluted by bio-
degradable wastes
• To increase the discharge of a sluice gate by holding sack tail
water, thus preventing drawn jump
Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel
• For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the
energy of flow is dissipated through frictional resistance along
the channel, resulting in a decrease in velocity and an increase
in depth in the direction of flow
• A hydraulic jump will form in the channel if the Frond Number
Fr1 of the flow, the flow depth y1, and a downstream depth y2
satisfy the following equation: (refer Vent chow, Open channel
hydraulics book of momentum equation for sequent depths

 
derivations)
y2 1
  1  8 F12
y1 2
 Basic characteristics of the Jump

• Energy Loss: the loss of energy in the jump is equal

to the difference in specific energy before and after
the jump.
• Efficiency: the ratio of the specific energy
after the jump to that before the jump is defined as
the efficiency of the jump.

 Height of Jump: - the difference between the

depths after and before the jump.
Hj = y2 – y1
 
• Length of Jump: The length of a jump (also length
of stilling basin) is empirically given as

• Where, k – is a coefficient derived from laboratory

and filed experiment. 4.5 < k < 5.5 where the lower k
= 4.5 applies of Fr2 > 10 and the high for Fr2 < 3
 CLASSIFICATION OF JUMPS
• Hydraulic Jumps on horizontal floor are conveniently
classified according to Froude Number Fr1 of the incoming
Supercritical flow as follows
• Fr1 =1-critical flow no jump can form
a) Undular jump (1< Fr1 ≤ 1.7)- the water surface shows
undulation
b) weak jump (1.7 < Fr1 ≤ 2.5) - a series of small rollers
develop on the surface of the jump

c) Oscillating Jump (2.5 < Fr1 ≤ 4.5) -there is an oscillating jet

entering the jump bottom to surface and Back again with no
periodicity
d) steady Jump (4.5 < Fr1 ≤ 9.0)- The downstream extremity of the
surface roller and the point at which the high-velocity jet tends to
leave the flow occur at practically the same vertical section. The
jump is well balanced and the performance is at its best. The energy
dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%
e) Strong jump (Fr > 9.0): The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent
slugs of water rolling down the front face of the jump, generating
waves downstream and a rough surface can prevail. The jump action
is rough but effective since the energy dissipation may reach 85%
Fig. strong jump ( F1 >9)
Fig. Hydraulic jumps at different Froud numbers (Courtesy: M.G. Bos)
 EXAMPLE 1 : A rectangular channel carrying a supercritical
stream is to be provided with a hydraulic-jump type of energy
dissipator. If it is desired to have an energy loss of 5.0 m in the
jump when the inlet Froude number is 8.5, determine the sequent
depths.
Solution
F1  8.5 and EL  5.0 m
By Equation,
y1
y2 1

  1  8F 2
2
1 
1
   1  8  8.5   11 .53
2

2 
3
By Equation,  y2 
  1
5.0 11 .53  1.0
3
E L  y1  =
   25.32m
y1  y2 
4  y1 4 11 .53
 y1 
y1  0.198m y2  2.277m
 2. FLOW OVER SPILLWAYS
• Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging
flood flows OR overflow channel; opening built into a dam or the
side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess floodwater
Sharp-crested Weir (SCW) Vs Broad Crested Weir (BCW)
• BCW- Overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the
deviation from a hydrostatic pressure distribution because of
centripetal acceleration may be neglected.
•  Stream-lines are parallel and straight 
• Criteria 0.5  H1/L  0.07
 
• SCW
– Overflow structure (H1/L > 15)
– The crest length in the direction of the flow is short
enough not to influence the H-Q relationship of a weir
-is the simplest form of overflow spillway
• Spillways must discharge the peak flow under smallest
possible head
• Negative pressure on the crest must be limited to avoid
danger of cavitation on the crest or vibration of the
structure
 Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways
• Earliest shapes were based on  a simple parabola designed to fit
the trajectory of the falling nappe (the equation for the lower
surface of the nappe)
• On the basis of the Bureau data, The U.S Army. Corps
of Engineers has developed several standard shapes at
its Waterways Experimental Station. Such shapes
designed as the WES standard spillway shapes, can be
expressed by the following equation:-
 Slope of upstream face k n

Vertical 2.000 1.850

3 on 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836

3 on 2 1.939 1.810

3 on 3 1.873 1.776
 Discharge over a spillway
• The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in
the form of SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5
• where
He the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head
in the approach canal
• The effect of the approach velocity is negligible when height h of
the spillway is greater than 1.33Hd (h > 1.33 Hd), where the
design head exclude the approach velocity head
• Under this condition, i.e. h/Hd > 1.33, He = Hd can be taken (the
approach velocity head is negligible) and the coefficient of
discharge C has been found to be C = 2.21
Where:
L = effective length of crest,
L’ = net length of crest,
N = number of piers,
KP = pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient, and
He = actual head on crest
The pier contraction coefficient,
Kp = 0.02 for square-nosed with rounded corner piers:
Kp = 0.01 for round-nosed piers: and
Kp = 0.0 for pointed-nose piers

The abutment contraction coefficient,

Ka = 0.20 for square abutment with 900 water cut:
Ka = 0.10 for rounded abutment with 900 water cut, and
Ka = 0.0 for rounded abutment with headwall placed not more
than at 450 to direction of flow
EXAMPLE 2: A spillway discharges a flood flow at a rate of 7.75m 3 s per
metre width. At the downstream horizontal apron, the depth of flow
was found to be 0.50m. What tailwater depth is needed to form a
hydraulic jump? If a jump is formed, find its (a) type, (b) length, (c)
head loss, (d) energy loss as a percentage of the initial energy
Solution
q  7.75 m 3 s m and y1  0.50m
7.75 15.50
V1   15.50 F1   7.0
0.50 9.81 0.50

sequent-depth: By Equation

y2 1  2 
   1  1  8  7    9.41
y1 2  

y2  4.71m required tailwater depth

(a) Type: since F1= 7.0, a ‘steady’ jump will be formed
(b) Length of jump (Lj)

k value is bounded as 4.5 < k < 5.5, If Fr2 > 10, k = 4.5 and If Fr2 < 3
k= 5.5
Since Fr2 > 10, k value is equal to 4.5
L = k (y2-y1) = 4.5 (4.71- 0.5) = 18.95 m

E 
 y2  y1 
3
 4.71  0.50  4  0.5  4.71  7.92m
3
(c) L = head loss
4 y1 y2
V12 15.50
2
(d) E1  y1   0.5   12.75m
2g 2  9.81

Percentage of initial energy loss, (EL/E1) ×100 = (7.92/12.75) × 100 = 62%

EXAMPLE 3: An overflow spillway (Fig below) is 40.0 m high. At
the design energy head of 2.5 m over the spillway, find the sequent
depths and energy loss in a hydraulic jump formed on a horizontal
 at the toe of the spillway. Neglect energy loss due to flow
apron
over the spillway face. (Assume Cd = 0.738).
Solution

The discharge per metre width of the spillway is

2
q  Cd 2 g H d3 2
3
2
 0.738  29.812.5
32

3
 99.614 m 3 s m
By the energy equation V12
p  H d  y1 
2g
(Energy loss over the spillway is neglected)

y1 
8.614 
2
 42.15
2
2 gy1
By trial-and error
y1  0.30m
q 8.614
V1    28.71 m s
y1 0.3
F1  V1 gy1  28.71 9.81 0.3  16.74
By Equation,
y2 1 2
  1  816.74  23.18
0.30 2  

y2  6.954m
Energy loss
EL 
 y2  y1 
3

4 y1 y2


6.954  0.33  35.30m
4  0.30  6.954

E1 = Energy at section 1= 42.5m

Percentage of initial energy loss  EL  100  83.0%

E1
 3. FLOWS UNDER GATES

• Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators.

Sometimes, gates are used as discharge regulator (measuring
device)
• They are under-shot or underflow structures. Example slice
gate, radial gate, roller gate
•  The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge
relationship (Q-H)
• The objective is to minimize head loss; this means that the
gate has to be lifted out off the water for design discharge
• In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished
1. Free flow: the opening is relatively small and the contraction of
the steam-lines in vertical direction is strong
• The equation for a free flow underneath a sharp edged gate is

• Cc is 0.611 for sharp edged gates (d=0) and Cc is 0.99 for rounded
of edged gates with
• The depth downstream of a hydraulic structure, such as a sluice
gate, controlled by the downstream channel or local control is
known as tailwater depth
• Tailwater level plays a significant role in the formation of the jump
at a particular location
• Consider a flow from a sluice gate of opening a (Fig.below)
• The depth at the vena contracta is ya
• Let the depth sequent to ya be y2
• Let the tailwater level be yt
• Depending upon the relative values of y2 and yt two basic types
of jumps can be identified

Fig. Free jump at vena contracta ( yt =y2)

• When y1=y2,a hydraulic jump will form at the vena contracta. Also
if y1<y2,the jump is repelled downstream of the vena contracta
through an M3 curve (Fig. below).
• The depth at the toe of the jump will be larger than ya and the
sequent depth y12 =yt (Fig. below). Such a jump is known as
repelled jump
• Jumps with sequent depth equalled to or less than y2 are known as
free jumps, indicating that the supercritical stream before the jump
is not affected by tailwater.
• The procedure indicated at the beginning of this section can be used
to locate the position of a free jump
Fig. Free repelled jump ( yt <y2)
2. Submerged flow: the d/s water level influences the flow underneath
the gate. The hydraulic jump is drowned and the jet underneath the
gate is submerged. The discharge depends upon the upstream and
downstream water level and the gate opening
• The equation for a submerged flow underneath a sharp edged gate is

Where,
a = vertical opening of the gate (a< 0.67h1)
h1 = Upstream water depth
B = Effective width of the opening
C2 = discharge coefficient , C2 is a function of
C2 values range between 0 and 1
• If however the tailwater is larger than y2 (Fig. below), the
supercritical stream is submerged and the resulting jump is called
submerged or drowned jump.
• The ratio, yt  y2 is called submergence factor and
S
y2
influences the characteristics of submerged jump considerably
• Generally, the energy dissipation in a submerged jump is smaller
than that in a corresponding free jump
Fig. Submerged jump ( yt >y2)
3. Weir flow: on off gate

The equation for discharge of a broad crested weir is

Generally
 EXAMPLE 4: A sluice gate in a 3.0 m wide rectangular,
horizontal channel releases a discharge of l8.0 m3/s. The gate
opening is 0.67 m and the coefficient of contraction can be
assumed to be 0.6. Examine the type of hydraulic jump formed
when the tailwater is (i) 3.60 m (ii) 5.00 m and (iii) 4.09 m.
Solution
Let A be the section of vena contracta (Refer the figure during
lecture).
ya = depth at vena contracta = 0.67 × 0.6 = 0.40 m
Va = 18.0 / (3.0 × 0.4) = 15.0 m/s
V
Fa = Froude number at vena contracta =
gya
15.0
Fa   7.573
9.81 0.4
If y2 = Sequent depth required for a jump at vena contracta
y2
yt
1

  1  8 Fa2
2

 1
 1  87.573   10.22
2

2  
y2  10.22  0.40  4.09m
i. When the tailwater depth yt = 3.60 m,
Since yt <y2 a free repelled jump will form.
18.0
yt   1.667 m s
3.0  3.60
1.667
F1   0.281
9.81 3.60
The depth at the toe of this repelled jump y1 is given by
y1 1
yt

  1  8 Ft 2
2

y1 1
 1  80.281   0.1387
2

3.60 2  
y1  0.50m
An M3 curve will extend from section A (ya =0.40 m) to section 1
(y1=0.50m)
ii. When the tailwater depth yt = 5.0 m
Since yt (5m) > y2 (4.09m) , a submerged jump will occur
iii. When yt = 4.09, yt = y2 and a free jump will occur at section l
with y1 = ya = 0.40 m
 Exercise

#Q) Considering a dissipation basin at the

downstream end of a spillway, the total discharge is Q
2000 m3/s. The energy dissipation structure is located
in a horizontal rectangular channel (25 m wide). The
flow depth at the downstream end of the spillway is
2.3m.
Compute the power dissipation in the basin.
THE END!!