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Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.1. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and its evolution:
Artificial Intelligence is an approach to make a computer, a robot, or a product to think how
smart human think.
AI is a study of how human brain think, learn, decide and work, when it tries to solve
problems. And finally this study outputs intelligent software systems.
The aim of AI is to improve computer functions which are related to human knowledge, for
example, reasoning, learning, and problem-solving.
The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of
• Reasoning
•Learning
•Problem Solving
•Perception
•Linguistic Intelligence
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.1. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and its evolution:
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.2. What is Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence:
Human Intelligence refers to humans’ intellectual capability that allows us to think, learn
from different experiences, understand complex concepts.
Apply logic and reason, solve mathematical problems, recognize patterns, make inferences
and decisions, retain information, and communicate with fellow human beings.
What makes human intelligence unique is that it is backed by abstract emotions like self-
awareness, passion, and motivation that enable humans to accomplish complex cognitive
tasks.
What makes human intelligence unique is that it is backed by abstract emotions like self-
awareness, passion, and motivation that enable humans to accomplish complex cognitive
tasks.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.2. What is Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Data Science that focuses on building smart machines
capable of performing a wide range of tasks that usually require human intelligence and
cognition.
These intelligent machines are imbued with learning from experience and historical data,
analyzing their surrounding environments, and performing the befitting actions.
Right now, AI is still developing and advancing. The time required to train AI systems is
considerably high, which isn’t possible without human intervention.
Be it autonomous cars and robots, or sophisticated technologies like natural language
processing and image processing, they all rely on human intelligence.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.3. How AI is affecting on real life?:
There are so many amazing ways artificial intelligence and machine learning are used
behind the scenes to impact our everyday lives.
AI assists in every area of our lives, whether we’re trying to read our emails, get driving
directions, get music or movie recommendations.
examples how artificial intelligence is used in day-to-day activities such as:
•Social media
•Digital Assistants
•Self-Driving And Parking Vehicles
•Email communications
•Web searching
•Music Recommendations
•Maps and Directions
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.3. How AI is affecting on real life?:
How Artificial Intelligence Improves Social Media:
Artificial intelligence makes it easier for users to locate and communicate with friends and business
associates
Facebook:
Deep learning is helping Facebook draw value from a larger portion of its unstructured datasets created by
almost 2 billion people(one thousand million) updating their statuses 293,000 times per minute.
Most of its deep learning technology is built on the Torch framework that focuses on deep learning
technologies and neural networks.
Instagram:
Instagram also uses big data and artificial intelligence to target advertising and fight cyberbullying and delete
offensive comments.
As the amount of content grows in the platform, artificial intelligence is critical to be able to show users of
the platform information they might like, fight spam and enhance the user experience.
Chatbots:
Chatbots recognize words and phrases in order to (hopefully) deliver helpful content to customers who have
common questions. Sometimes, chatbots are so accurate that it seems as if you’re talking to a real person.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.3. How AI is affecting on real life?:
Digital Assistants:
Apple’s Siri, Google Now, Amazon’s Alexa, and Microsoft’s Cortana are digital assistants
that help users perform various tasks, from checking their schedules and searching for
something on the web, to sending commands to another app.
AI is an important part of how these apps work because they learn from every single user
interaction.
Self-Driving And Parking Vehicles:
Self-driving and parking cars use deep learning, a subset of AI, to recognize the space
around a vehicle.
Technology company Nvidia uses AI to give cars “the power to see, think, and learn, so they
can navigate a nearly infinite range of possible driving scenarios,” .
The company’s AI-powered technology is already in use in cars made by Toyota, Mercedes-
Benz, Audi, Volvo, and Tesla , and is sure to revolutionize how people drive and enable
vehicles to drive themselves.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.3. How AI is affecting on real life?:
Email Filters in Gmail:
Google uses AI to ensure that nearly all of the email landing in your inbox is authentic.
Their filters attempt to sort emails into the following categories:
•Primary
•Social
•Promotions
•Updates
•Forums
•Spam
The program helps your emails get organized so you can find your way to important
communications quicker. For example, Gmail sorts email into 4 different tabbed categories,
and sends the spam mail to a separate folder.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.3. How AI is affecting on real life?:
How Artificial Intelligence Helps With Web Searches:
AI has been used to help with Google searches for quite some time.
Google Predictive Searches:
When you begin typing a search term and Google makes recommendations for you to choose from,
that’s AI in action.
Predictive searches are based on data that Google collects about you, such as your location, age,
and other personal details. Using AI, the search engine attempts to guess what you might be trying to
find.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.3. How AI is affecting on real life?:
Music Recommendations:
Music services use AI to track your listening habits. Then, they use the information to
suggest other songs you might like to hear.
For example, Spotify offers suggestions for new discoveries, new releases, and old favorites,
based on your listening habits.
Maps and Directions:
When apps like Google Maps calculate traffic and construction in order to find the quickest
route to your destination, that’s AI at work.
In the example below, Google Maps offers directions based on the fastest route from Berlin
to Potsdam according to the usual traffic. Orange sections of the route indicate where traffic is
slower.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.4. Different branches of AI :
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.4. Different branches of AI :
1. Machine learning:
Machine Learning - ML is a method of data analysis automating analytical model building. It’s a branch of AI based on the
idea of systems learning from data, identifying patterns and making decisions with very little human interception.
In terms of advanced technology, one of the most demanding fields is Machine Learning, it is making buzz every day whenever a new
product is introduced by any company that deploys ML techniques and algorithms for delivering the consumer in a highly creative manner.
In the last few years, it has given us self-driving cars, image and speech recognition, useful web search and various extensive applications. It
basically converges on the applications that adapt from experience and advance their decision-making potential or predictive accuracy over a
period of time.
Deep Learning - Deep learning is part of a broader family of machine learning methods based on artificial neural networks
with representation learning. This Learning can be divided into three categories-: supervised, semi-supervised or unsupervised.
2. Natural Language Processing –
NLP is a subfield of linguistics, computer science, information engineering, and AI which deals with the interactions
between computers and human languages.
NLP specifically concerned with programming computers to process and analyze large amounts of natural language data
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.4. Different branches of AI :
3. Robotics -
As obvious from it’s name, Robotics is the study of robot technology which makes use of
disciplines like dynamic system modeling and analysis, mathematics, physics, biology, mechanical
engineering, electrical and electronic engineering, computer science and engineering, and
automation (sensors, control, and actuators) technology.
4. Expert Systems –
In AI, an expert system is a computer system which emulates the decision-making ability of a
human expert.
Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through bodies of
knowledge, represented mainly as if–then rules rather than through conventional procedural code.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.5. Limitations of AI :
1. HIGH COST OF IMPLEMENTATION:
Setting up AI-based machines, computers, etc. entails huge costs given the complexity of
engineering that goes into building one.
Further, the astronomical expense doesn’t stop there as repair and maintenance also run into
thousands of dollars.
Do you know how much it cost Apple to acquire its virtual assistant SIRI?
The acquisition of the software cost somewhere around a whopping $200 million. Further, the
high cost of AI implementation is evident from the fact that Amazon acquired Alexa for $26
million in 2013.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.5. Limitations of AI :
2. CAN’T REPLACE HUMANS
It is beyond any doubt that machines perform much more efficiently as compared to a
human being.
But even then it is practically impossible to replace humans with AIs, at least in the near
future, because you can’t build human intelligence in a machine as it is a gift of nature. So,
no matter how smart a machine can become, it can never replace a human.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.5. Limitations of AI :
3. AI needs big data:
Machines are not suitable for all tasks. AI is very effective in rules-based environments with lots of data
to analyze.
Its use is therefore relevant for things such as autonomous cars, which drive in dense traffic governed by
specific laws, or finding the best price at which to resell a batch of shares.
The existing AI models require large amounts of task-specific training data such
as ImageNet and CIFAR-10 image databases, composed of 1.2 million and 60 thousand data points (labeled
images), respectively.
Labeling these data is often tedious, slow, and expensive, undermining the central purpose of AI.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.5. Limitations of AI :
5. Unemployment:
This one is the riskiest and can have severe effects. With capital intensive technologies, human-
intensive requirements have decreased in some industries.
If in the future, human beings don’t add to their skills, then in no time, we can see that they will be
replaced with machines.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.6. Need of knowledge Representation:
Knowledge representation is probably, the most important ingredient for developing an AI.
Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a database, it allows a machine to
learn from that knowledge and behave intelligently like a human being.
A representation is a layer between information accessible from outside world and high level
thinking processes.
Without knowledge representation it is impossible to identify what thinking processes are
The subject of knowledge representation has been messaged for a couple of decades already.
For many applications, specific domain knowledge is required. Instead of coding such
knowledge into a system in a way that it can never be changed (hidden in the overall
implementation), more flexible ways of representing knowledge and reasoning about it have
been developed in the last 10 years.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.6. Need of knowledge Representation:
Human beings are good at understanding, reasoning and interpreting knowledge. And using this
knowledge, they are able to perform various actions in the real world.
But how do machines perform the same? Here, we will learn about Knowledge Representation in AI
and how it helps the machines perform reasoning and interpretation using Artificial Intelligence.
What is Knowledge Representation?
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents information from the real world
for a computer to understand and then utilize this knowledge to solve complex real-life
problems like communicating with human beings in natural language.
Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a database, it allows a machine to
learn from that knowledge and behave intelligently like a human being.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.6. Need of knowledge Representation:
What is the Relation between Knowledge & Intelligence?
In the real world, knowledge plays a vital role in intelligence as well as creating artificial
intelligence. It demonstrates the intelligent behavior in AI agents or systems. It is possible for an
agent or system to act accurately on some input only when it has the knowledge or experience about
the input.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.7. Knowledge Representation and Mapping schemes:
Over the past 40 years, numerous representational scheme have been proposed and implemented,
each of them having its own strength and weakness.
According to Mylopoulos and Levesque (1984) they have been classified into four categories:
1. Logical Representation Scheme:
This class of representation uses expressions in formal logic to represent a knowledge base. Inference
rules and proof procedures apply this knowledge to problem solving.
First order predicate calculus is the most widely used logical representation scheme, and PROLOG is
an ideal programming language for implementing logical representation schemes.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.7. Knowledge Representation and Mapping schemes:
2. Procedural Representation Scheme:
Procedural scheme represents knowledge as a set of instructions for solving a problem. In a rule-
based system,
for example, an if then rule may be interpreted as a procedure for searching a goal in a problem
domain: to arrive at the conclusion, solve the premises in order. Production systems are examples of a
procedural representation scheme.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.7. Knowledge Representation and Mapping schemes:
3. Network Representation Scheme:
Network representation captures knowledge as a graph in which the nodes represent objects or
concepts in the problem domain and the arcs represent relations or associations between them.
Examples of network representations include semantic network, conceptual dependencies and
conceptual graphs.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.7. Knowledge Representation and Mapping schemes:
4. Structured Representation Scheme:
Structured representation languages extend networks by allowing each node to be a complex data
structure consisting of named slots with attached values.
These values may be simple numeric or complex data, such as pointers to other frames, or even
procedures.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.8. Properties of good knowledge-based system:
The following properties should be possessed by a knowledge representation system.
1.Representational Adequacy:
It is the ability to represent the required knowledge.
2. Inferential Adequacy:
It is the ability to manipulate the knowledge represented to produce new knowledge corresponding to
that inferred from the original.
3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential mechanisms into the most productive directions by storing
appropriate guides.
4. Acquisitional Efficiency:
The ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic methods wherever possible rather than
reliance on human intervention.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.9. Types of knowledge:
Primarily, we see five types of knowledge in any knowledge representation block in AI systems. The
knowledge types are as follows
1. Declarative:
The knowledge which is based on concepts, facts and objects, is termed as 'Declarative Knowledge’.
It provides all the necessary information about the problem in terms of simple statements, either true
or false.
2. Procedural:
Procedural knowledge derives the information on the basis of rules, strategies, agendas and
procedure.
It describes how a problem can be solved.
Procedural knowledge directs the steps on how to perform something.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.9. Types of knowledge:
3. Heuristic knowledge:
Heuristic knowledge is based on thumb rule.
It provides the information based on a thumb rule, which is useful in guiding the reasoning process.
In this type, the knowledge representation is based on the strategies to solve the problems through the
experience of past problems, compiled by an expert. Hence, it is also known as Shallow knowledge.
4. Meta-knowledge:
This type gives an idea about the other types of knowledge that are suitable for solving problem.
Meta-knowledge is helpful in enhancing the efficiency of problem solving through proper reasoning
process.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.9. Types of knowledge:
5. Structural knowledge:
Structural knowledge is associated with the information based on rules, sets, concepts and
relationships.
It provides the information necessary for developing the knowledge structures and overall mental
model of the problem.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.10. Knowledge Representation issues:
The main objective of knowledge representation is to draw the conclusions from the knowledge, but
there are many issues associated with the use of knowledge representation techniques.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.10. Knowledge Representation issues:
1. Important attributes( Challenging Task to Identify)
There are two attributes shown in the diagram, instance and isa. Since these attributes support
property of inheritance, they are of prime importance.
2. Relationships among attributes
Basically, the attributes used to describe objects are nothing but the entities. However, the attributes
of an object do not depend on the encoded specific knowledge.
3. Choosing the granularity of representation
what level should the knowledge be represented?
4. Representing sets of objects.
There are some properties of objects which satisfy the condition of a set together but not as
individual;
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.10. Knowledge Representation issues:
5. Finding the right structure as needed:
To describe a particular situation, it is always important to find the access of right structure. This can
be done by selecting an initial structure and then revising the choice.
While selecting and reversing the right structure, it is necessary to solve following problem
statements. They include the process on how to:
•Select an initial appropriate structure.
•Fill the necessary details from the current situations.
•Determine a better structure if the initially selected structure is not appropriate to fulfill other
conditions.
•Find the solution if none of the available structures is appropriate.
•Create and remember a new structure for the given condition.
•There is no specific way to solve these problems, but some of the effective knowledge representation
techniques have the potential to solve them.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.11. AND-OR Graph
What is an AND or graph in AI?
The AND-OR GRAPH (or tree) is useful for representing the solution of problems that can solved by
decomposing them into a set of smaller problems, all of which must then be solved.
This decomposition, or reduction, generates arcs that we call AND arcs.
The nodes of the graph represent states or goals and their successors are labeled as either AND or
OR branches.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.11. AND-OR Graph
When a problem can be divided into a set of sub problems, where each sub problem can be solved
separately and a combination of these will be a solution, AND-OR graphs or AND - OR trees are
used for representing the solution.
The decomposition of the problem or problem reduction generates AND arcs. One AND are may
point to any number of successor nodes.
All these must be solved so that the arc will rise to many arcs, indicating several possible solutions.
Hence the graph is known as AND - OR instead of AND. Figure shows an AND - OR graph
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.11. AND-OR Graph
When a problem can be divided into a set of sub problems, where each sub problem can be solved
separately and a combination of these will be a solution, AND-OR graphs or AND - OR trees are
used for representing the solution.
The decomposition of the problem or problem reduction generates AND arcs. One AND are may
point to any number of successor nodes.
All these must be solved so that the arc will rise to many arcs, indicating several possible solutions.
Hence the graph is known as AND - OR instead of AND. Figure shows an AND - OR graph
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.11. AND-OR Graph
a* and ao* algorithm:
A* Vs AO* Both are part of informed search technique and use heuristic values to solve the
problem.
The solution is guaranteed in both algorithm. A* always gives an optimal solution (shortest path with
low cost) But It is not guaranteed to that AO* always provide an optimal solutions.
AO* Algorithm:
AO* Algorithm basically based on problem decompositon (Breakdown problem into small pieces)
When a problem can be divided into a set of sub problems, where each sub problem can be solved
separately and a combination of these will be a solution, AND-OR graphs or AND - OR trees are
used for representing the solution.
The decomposition of the problem or problem reduction generates AND arcs.
1. Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge representation
1.11. AND-OR Graph
a* and ao* algorithm:
To pass any exam, we have two options, either cheating or hard work.
In this graph we are given two choices, first do cheating or (The red line) work hard and (The
arc) pass.
When we have more than one choice and we have to pick one, we apply OR condition to choose
one.(That's what we did here).
Basically the ARC here denote AND condition.
Here we have replicated the arc between the work hard and the pass because by doing the hard work
possibility of passing an exam is more than cheating.
