LECTURE 8:

Science,
Technology, and
Society and the
Human
Condition
Prepared by:

DIVINE GRACE S. BATENGA, MSc., LPT

Subject Teacher
2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Identify different conceptions of human flourishing;

b) Determine the development of the scientific method
and validity of science; and
c) Critic human flourishing vis-a-vis progress of science
and technology to be able to define for themselves
the meaning of a good life.
3 EUDAIMONIA

– “good spirited”
– Coined by renowned Greek
philosopher Aristotle
– Describe the pinnacle of
happiness that is attainable
by humans
4 EUDAIMONIA

– Often translated into “human

flourishing” in literature
– Likening humans to flowers
achieving their full bloom
5 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

– Nicomachean Ethics is a philosophical inquiry into the

nature of the good life for a human being.
– Aristotle begins the work by positing that there exists
some ultimate good toward which, in the final analysis,
all human actions ultimately aim.
– The necessary characteristics of the ultimate good are
that it is complete, final, self-sufficient and continuous.
6 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

JUSTICE
• One of the peaks of virtue.
• Being truly just requires having all the other virtues.
• Justice unifies and orders the virtues.
 Natural Justice – the same in all times and places
 Legal Justice – just according to law; it ought to be in accordance
with natural justice
7 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

LAW
• All laws are in some sense just, since any law is better than no law.
• To be truly just, a law must be in accordance with natural justice.
• A problem with laws is that they need to formulated in a universal way
and thus are not able to take into account the particulars of each situation.
• Law is also crucial for the moral education of citizens.
• Laws are necessary in order to habituate citizens in virtuous action.
8 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

THE GOOD
• There is some ultimate good which is both final and self-
sufficient, and he defines this good as happiness.
• There must be one final end of all human actions.
• All lesser goods, such as wealth, honor, fame, glory, pleasure,
etc., are not desired for themselves but in order to attain
happiness.
• The good life’ or doing well’ to be the same things as being
happy.
9 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

HAPPINESS
• The happiness of man can be defined by determining the
function proper to man.
• It is particular to human beings.
• "the Good of man [happiness] is the active exercise of his
soul's faculties in conformity with excellence or virtue”
• The highest happiness for a human being is a life of
contemplation, but secondary happiness is achieved through
ethical virtue.
10 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

ETHICAL VIRTUE
– Ethical virtue "is a habit disposed toward action by deliberate choice, being
at the mean relative to us, and defined by reason as a prudent man would
define it.“
– Virtue is not simply an isolated action but a habit of acting well.
– For an action to be virtuous a person must do it deliberately, knowing
what he is doing, and doing it because it is a noble action.
– Only voluntary actions can be virtuous.
– When a person performs a virtuous action but does it in opposition to his
desires, he is continent but not virtuous.
11 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

ETHICAL VIRTUE
– 11 virtues: courage, temperance, generosity, magnificence,
magnanimity, right ambition, good temper, friendliness,
truthfulness, wit, and justice.
– The four requirements for virtue are that the person:
1) know what he is doing
2) intend the action for its own sake
3) take pleasure in it
4) do it with certainty and firmness
12 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

HUMAN NATURE
– All human beings naturally desire the good, which is happiness.
– The highest faculty of a human being is the ability to reason.
– Through reason humans, can examine things beyond the material and
sensible level and can reach conclusions about the nature of things.
– Human beings have the ability to choose their actions freely.
– Human beings are also social by nature, as shown by the natural desire for
friendship and by the ability of human beings to speak and communicate
with others.
13 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

WEALTH
– While some live as if wealth were the ultimate aim of human
life, they are incorrect in doing so, for wealth is only an
instrumental good and is not an end in itself.
– For the highest happiness, moderate amount of wealth
sufficient to provide a person’s physical needs is better than
superfluous wealth.
– A person should use his wealth liberally in the service of others
and of good causes, but should not spend beyond his means.
14 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

PRUDENCE
– The virtue which one must develop in order to attain moral virtue and to
find the correct mean in all of one's actions is prudence.
– Prudence is an intellectual virtue, and is the ability to deliberate well
regarding human actions.
– “without prudence virtues cannot exist," but, “where there is prudence, all
the others are present“.
– Prudence and ethical virtue are inseparable, much like two sides of the
same coin, "for while virtue makes the end in view right, prudence makes
the means towards it right“.
15 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

FRIENDSHIP
– Friendship is necessary for a happy life, because human beings are social
beings.
– There are three types of friendships: based on useful, based on pleasure,
and based on virtue
– Only the third type of friendship is friendship in the complete sense.
– Friendship requires that the friends wish the good for one another and
share in some of life's activities together.
– A friend is another self, and the love one has for a friend is analogous to
proper self-love. FRIEND = LOVE
16 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

– Acquiring those mentioned qualities will surely

bring the seekers happiness, which in effect
allows them to partake in the greater notion of
what we call the Good.
17 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
18

Our concept of human flourishing today proves

to be different from what Aristotle originally
perceived then.
19

Humans of today are expected to become a

“man of the world”.
20

He is supposed to situate himself in a global neighborhood, working side by

side among institutions and the government to be able to reach a common
goal.

Competition as means of survival has become passé; coordination is the new

trend.
21 DISCREPANCY BETWEEN EASTERN AND
WESTERN CONCEPTION REGARDING SOCIETY
AND HUMAN FLOURISHING

WESTERN CIVILIZATION
• More focused on individual
• Primary concern on human flourishing as an end
• Aims for eudaimonia as the ultimate good
o A person who has achieved such state would want to serve the
community, but that is brought upon through deliberation based on his
values rather than his belief that the state is greater than him, and thus is
only appropriate that he should recognize it as higher entity worthy of
service.
22 DISCREPANCY BETWEEN EASTERN AND
WESTERN CONCEPTION REGARDING SOCIETY
AND HUMAN FLOURISHING

EASTERN CIVILIZATION
• More community-centric
• Community takes the highest regard that the individual should
sacrifice himself for the sake of the society
o Chinese Confucian System – focuses on the importance of personal ethics
and morality
o Japanese Bushido – code of behavior valuing honor above life

• Encourage studies of literature, sciences, and art – in service of

a greater cause
23 DISCREPANCY BETWEEN EASTERN AND
WESTERN CONCEPTION REGARDING SOCIETY
AND HUMAN FLOURISHING

– Such stereotypes cannot be said to be true given the

current stance of globalization.
– Flourishing borders allowed people full access to
cultures that as a result, very few are able to maintain
their original philosophies.
– It is in this regard that we would tackle human flourishing
– in global perspective and as a man of the world.
24 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND
HUMAN FLOURISHING
– Every discovery, innovation, and success contributes to our pool of
human knowledge.
– One of the most prevalent themes is human’s perpetual need to locate
himself in the world by finding proofs to trace evolution.
– The business of uncovering the secrets of the universe answers the
question of our existence and provides us something to look forward to.
– Having a particular role, which is uniquely ours, elicits the idea of self-
importance.
25 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND
HUMAN FLOURISHING
– Human flourishing is deeply intertwined with goal setting relevant
to science and technology.
– TECHNOLOGY
• Relevant as a tool in achieving SCIENCE or echoing Martin Heidegger’s
statement, “technology is a human activity that we excel in as a result of
achieving science”.
– The end goals of both science and technology and human flourishing
are related, in that the good is inherently related to the truth.
26 SCIENCE AS METHOD RESULT
The Scientific Method
1) OBSERVE
• Determine if there are
unexplained occurrences
unfolding
2) DETERMINE THE
PROBLEM
• Identify the factors involved
27 SCIENCE AS METHOD RESULT
The Scientific Method
3) FORMULATE HYPOTHESIS
• Through past knowledge of similar
instance.
• The goal is to reject the null
hypothesis and accept the
alternative hypothesis for the study
o Alternative Hypothesis (H1) – the
hypothesis that we are interested in Example:
proving. Not so long ago, people believed that
the world is flat.
o Null Hypothesis (Ho) – the commonly
Ho: The world is flat.
accepted fact H1: The world is round.
28 SCIENCE AS METHOD RESULT
The Scientific Method
4) CONDUCT EXPERIMENT
• Setting up dependent and
independent variables
• Trying to see how independent
ones affect dependent ones
29 SCIENCE AS METHOD RESULT
The Scientific Method
5) GATHER AND ANALYZE
• Results throughout and upon
culmination of the experiment
• Examine if the data gathered
are significant enough to
conclude results
30 SCIENCE AS METHOD RESULT
The Scientific Method
6) FORMULATE CONCLUSION
AND PROVIDE
RECOMMENDATION
• In case others would want to
broaden the study
 31
The general process of
scientific method
A diagram that illustrates how
scientific investigation moves from
observation of phenomenon to a
theory. The progress is not as
straightforward as it looks in this
diagram. Many times, every
hypothesis is falsified which means
the investigator will have
to start over again.

LAW
32 SCIENCE VS. PSEUDOSCIENCE

2 Distinct Features that give Science edge over other

schools of thoughts:
1) Experimentation
2) Empiricism – states that knowledge comes only or
primarily from sensory experience (five senses)
PSEUDOSCIENCE – refers to beliefs and practices that
claim to be scientific but lack the true method and essence
of science. (objects scientific procedure)
33 SCIENCE VS. PSEUDOSCIENCE
34 VERIFICATION THEORY

– The earliest criterion that distinguishes philosophy

and science.
– A discipline is science if it can be confirmed or
interpreted in the event of an alternative hypothesis
being accepted.
– Takes into account those results which are
measurable and experiments which are repeatable.
35 VERIFICATION THEORY

The Vienna Circle

– A group of philosophers and scientists
drawn from the natural and social
sciences, logic and mathematics who
met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the
University of Vienna.
– They believed that only those which can
be observed should be regarded as
meaningful and reject those which
cannot be directly accessed as
meaningless.
– “This apple is red.”
36 VERIFICATION THEORY
Statement: Ian likes me.
– American philosopher Thomas Kuhn warned us against bridging the gap between evidence and
theory by attempting to interpret it according to our own biases.
o Example: Lea has a (not-so-scientific) theory that her classmate Ian likes her. “Good”, she thought, “I
like him too. But how do I know that he likes me?”
Observation:
• His interactions with her
• Gestures (exchange of jokes, big smile, going out of his ways to greet her)
Conclusion:
• Ian does like her. (“why would anyone do something like that for a person he does not like?”)
Verification: Is it justified for Lea to
• Ian is just generally happy to meet people he knew think that Ian does not
• Ian known Lea since they were in 1st year like her?
• “I will never assume again.”
37 FALSIFICATION THEORY

– Current prevalent methodology in science.

– Asserts that as long as ideology is not proven to be false and can best
explain a phenomenon over alternative theories, we should accept the
said ideology.
– This theory allowed emergence of theories rejected by verification theory.
– A way of determining science from non-science.
– It suggests that for a theory to be considered scientific it must be able to
be tested and possibly proven false.
o For example, the hypothesis that "all swans are white," can be falsified by observing a
black swan.
38 FALSIFICATION THEORY

KARL POPPER
• Proponent of falsification theory
• He states that up-and-coming theories of the
time, such as Marx’s Theory of Social History
and Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis Theory,
are not testable and thus not falsifiable,
and questioning their status as scientific.
• For Popper, science should attempt to
disprove a theory, rather than attempt to
continually support theoretical hypotheses.
39 FALSIFICATION THEORY
Statement: Lea doesn’t like me.

He likes to be around But there is this one girl,

Ian is generally people and aspires to Lea, who seemed to not
everybody’s friend. become everybody’s like him when he is
friend. around.

When they are able to He then was able to

He concluded that Lea
talk to each other, he conclude that his initial
does not like him and
found out that Lea is impression of her not
does his best to show
just really shy and is not liking him (as a person)
her that he is not a
accustomed to people is wrong and thus said
threat.
greeting her. proposition is rejected.
40 FALSIFICATION THEORY

Although no happy ending yet for Lea and Ian, we

can thus see how in this case, falsification method
is prone to the same generalizations committed by
the verification method.
 There is no known rule as to the number of
instance that a theory is rejected or falsified
in order for it to be set aside.
 There is no assurance that observable event
or “evidences” are indeed manifestations of
certain concept or “theories”.
 Falsification method is more accepted, but
scientists are still not convinced that it
should be regarded as what makes a
discipline scientific.
41 VERIFICATION VS.
FALSIFICATION
– “Verification” refers to statements that are shown to be true.
(“Ian likes me.” – Leah)
– “Falsification” is to be understood as the rejection of
statements. (“Lea doesn’t like me.” – Ian)
– The goal of science is to create knowledge by identifying true
statements as true (verified) and false statements as false
(falsified).
– Popper showed that hypothesis cannot be empirically
verified but only falsified.
42 SCIENCE AS A SOCIAL ENDEAVOR

– The inclusiveness of the methodologies previously cited, a new

school of thought on the proper demarcation criterion of science
emerged.
– Sciences cease to belong solely to gown-wearing, bespectacled
scientists at laboratories.
– The new view perpetuates a dimension which generally benefits the
society.
o Far-off places in South America where many tribes remain uncontacted, do not
regard western science as their science. Whatever their science is, it can be
ascertained that it is in no way inferior to that of globalized people’s science.
43 SCIENCE AND RESULTS

– People who do not understand science are won over when the discipline is
able to produce results.
– Science is not the only discipline which is able to produce results – religion,
luck, and human randomness are some of its contemporaries in the field.
– For some communities without access to science, they can turn divination and
superstition and still get the same results.
– Science is not entirely foolproof.
o Weather reports, illustrate fallibility and limitations of their scope, as well as their
inability to predict disasters.
o The best that can be done during an upcoming disaster is to reinforce materials to be
more calamity proof and restore area upon impact.
44 SCIENCE AS EDUCATION

– There is no such thing as a singular scientific method,

offering instead a variety of procedures that scientist can
experiment with to get results and call them science.
– If one is really in pursuit of human flourishing, it would make
sense for them to pursue it holistically.
– Mastering science and technology would be inadequate if we
are socialize with people or ruminate on our inner self.
45 SCIENCE AS EDUCATION

– Aristotle’s eudaimonic person is required to be knowledgeable about

science, among other things of equal importance.
– They are supposed to possess intellectual virtues that will enable
them to determine truth from falsehood or good reasoning from poor
reasoning.
– A true eudaemon recognizes that flourishing requires one to excel in
various dimensions (linguistic, kinetic, artistic, socio-civic).
– One should understand that one should not focus on one aspect alone.
46 HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH?

– Economists believe that growth is the primary indicator of

development, and has put forth their resources in trying to achieve
such.
– Technology has been a primary instrument in enabling them to pursue
goals, utilizing resources, machineries, and labor.
– The world’s resources can only provide so much, it cannot be expected
to stretch out for everybody’s consumption over a long period of time.
– Growth is not infinite.
47 HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH?

– The capacity of nature to accommodate us.

– According to Jason Hickel, developed countries should not
push forth more growth but instead adopt “de-development”
policies (reducing consumption) or else, everybody loses.
48 HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH?

– The rapid pace of technological growth allows no room for

nature to recuperate, resulting in exploitation and irreversible
damages to nature.
• Nowadays, we are using one
planet and a half to get the
resources we consume
• So it takes the Earth one year
and a half to regenerate the
resources!!!
49 HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH?

– Right now, we are experiencing repercussions

of said exploits in the hands of man-made
climate change which would affect majority of
flora and fauna.
– If this continues in its currently alarming rate,
we might bring about our own extinction.
 End of lecture…

50
51 References:

Serafica J.P.et. al, (2018). Science, Technology and Society Rex Book Store, Inc.