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WORK, ENERGY

AND POWER
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PRE ACTIVITY
A Box Being Pushed

Consider a coordinate system such that we have x as the abscissa and y as

the ordinate. Imagine that a box is being pushed along the x direction. What
happens in the following scenarios? Write your answers in your Science
notebook/Answer Sheet.

•The box is being pushed parallel to the x direction ?

•The box is being pushed at an angle of 45 degrees to the x direction ?

• The box is being pushed at an angle of 60 degrees to the x direction ?

• The box is being pushed at an angle of 90 degrees to the x dire ction?

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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
A. Scalar Product (the Dot Product)

Did you know that a vector can be multiplied by another vector but may not be
divided by another vector? In Physics and Engineering, two kinds of products of
vectors are widely used. One of these is the scalar multiplication of two vectors. The
result of taking the product of two vectors is a number (a scalar), as its name
indicates. In this lesson, we will use scalar products to define work and energy
relations.

Scalar multiplication of two vectors yields a scalar product. The scalar product 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐁⃗⃗
of two vectors 𝐀⃗⃗ and 𝐁⃗⃗ is a number defined by the equation,

𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
where 𝝋 is the angle between the vectors. The scalar product is
also called the dot product because of the dot notation that
indicates it.

The direction of angle 𝝋 does not matter in the definition of the

dot product, and 𝝋 can be measured from either of the two
vectors to the other because 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋 . The dot product is a negative
number when 𝟏𝟖𝟎° and is a positive number when 𝟗𝟎°.
Moreover, the dot product of two parallel vectors is 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑨𝑩. The scalar product of two orthogonal vectors
vanishes: 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝟗𝟎° .
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
The scalar product of a vector with itself is the square of its
magnitude:

𝐀⃗⃗ 2 𝐴𝐴 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎° = 𝑨2

Fig ure 1
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
The scalar product of two vectors. (a) The angle between the two vectors. (b) The
orthogonal projection 𝑨 of vector ⃗𝑨⃗ onto the direction of vector ⃗𝑩⃗ . (c) The
orthogonal projection 𝑩 of vector ⃗𝑩⃗ onto the direction of vector ⃗𝑨⃗ .

Sample Problem 1: The Scalar Product

Fig ure 2
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
For the vectors shown in Figure 2, find the scalar product of 𝐀⃗⃗ .

Strategy:
The magnitudes of vectors 𝐀⃗⃗ and 𝐅 are 𝐴 = 10.0 and 𝐹 = 20.0. Angle 𝜃,
between them, is the difference: 𝜃 = 𝜑−𝛼 = 110°−35° = 75°. Substituting
these values into equation 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋 gives a scalar product.

Solution:
A straightforward calculation gives us
𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋 = (𝟏𝟎.𝟎)(𝟐𝟎.𝟎) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟕𝟓° = 𝟓𝟏.𝟕𝟔
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
B. Work Done by a Constant Force

We define the work W done by this constant force as the product of the force magnitude in
the direction of the displacement F and the displacement magnitude Δx:

W = F │Δx│ (constant force in direction of straight-line displacement)

Joule (J) is the unit of work or energy in the International System of Units (SI); it is equal to
the work done by a force of one newton acting through one meter (N.m).

The work done on the body increases if either the force F or the displacement Δx increases.
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DISCUSSION:

Work = W, weight = w Don’t confuse uppercase W (work) with

lowercase w (weight). Though the symbols are similar, work and weight are
different quantities.

If you attach a string to the box and pull it, as shown in the illustration below,
the force now acts at an angle to the displacement. In this situation, the work
done on the box by the force is the product between the force in the direction of
the displacement and the magnitude of the displacement:
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
W = F │∆x│= Fcosθ │∆x│or
W = Fcosθ │∆x│

where: F = magnitude of the constant force

│∆x│= magnitude of the displacement of the point of application of the force
θ = angle between the directions of the force and displacement vectors.
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
Energy, in physics, is the capacity for doing work. All forms of energy are associated
with motion.

Power is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed per unit time.
Watt, is the unit of power in the International
System of Units (SI) equal to one joule of work performed per second (J/s).

Sample Problem 2:
A force of 15N is exerted on a box at an angle of θ = 25°. How much work is
done by the force on the box as the box moves along the table a distance of 5.0
m?

STEP 1. Draw the object first at its initial position and second at its final
position. For ease, the object can be represented as a dot or a box. Label the
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:

STEP 2. Identify the given values in the problem. In the sample problem, the values to
be identified are the force applied which is represented by Fx we use the subscript x
since the direction of the force is horizontal, next is the value of the angle θ between the
directions of the force and vectors and lastly, the magnitude of the displacement │∆x│.
Therefore:
Given: Fx = 15N
θ = 25°
│∆x│= 5.0 m
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
STEP 3. Now that we have identified the given values in the problem, we can now solve for work. Observe that the
problem involves an angle, therefore the formula that we will be using here is W = Fcosθ │∆x│.

3.a. Supply the given values to the formula W = Fcosθ │∆x│.

Now we will have:

W = (15N) (cos25°) (5.0m)

3.b. Solve for cos25° using your scientific calculator, round off the result to 2 decimal places. After which the
result will be:

W = (15N) (0.91) (5.0m)

3.c. Multiply (15N) (0.91) (5.0m). The result is:

W = 68.25 Nm

3.d. Note that (Newton-meter) Nm is equivalent to Joule (J).

Therefore, our final answer is: W = 68.25 J
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
What if there are several forces doing work on a system? How are we going to compute the
work done?

The total work is found by computing the work done by each force and adding each
individual work together.

Total work is computed by using the formula:

WTotal = F1xΔx1 + F2xΔx2 + F3xΔx3+ . .

A system is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole.

The system can be described as particle when the system moves thus all the parts undergo
equal displacements. The points of application of the forces are identical when several of
these forces do work on such a particle.

Let the displacement of the point of application of any one of the forces be Δx. Then, WTotal
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
Since the displacements of all forces acting on the system are equal, we will only use one value for Δx.

The formula will be:

WTotal = (F 1x + F 2x + F 3x + . . .) Δx or
WTotal = Fnet xΔx

For a particle controlled to move along the x axis, the net force has only an x component. That is, ⃗𝑭⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 =
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒙𝒊̂. Thus, for a particle, the x component of the net force times the displacement of any part of the object is
equal to the total work done on the object. (Tipler and Mosca 2008)

Sample Problem 3:
A 4000 kg truck is to be loaded onto a ship by a crane that applies an upward force of 50 kN on the truck.
This force, which is strong enough to overcome the gravitation force and keep the truck moving upward, is
applied over a distance of 4.0 m. Find:

(a) the work done on the truck by the crane; (b) the work done on the truck by gravity; and (c) the net
work done on the truck.
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
STEP 1. Draw the object first at its initial position and
second at its final position. Choose the +y to be the
direction of the displacement. Since the displacement
direction is upward.

STEP 2. Identify the given values in the problem.

In the sample problem, we can identify 4 values:
mass(m) of the truck, force (Fapp y) applied by the
crane to the truck, displacement(∆y) and the
gravitational force(gy) since the displacement is in
upward direction.

Given:
m = 4000 kg
Fapp y = 50 kN ∆y = 4.0 m gy = -9.8 N/kg
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DISCUSSION:
Note: As you may have observed, the unit used for acceleration due to gravity is N/kg, it is because
m/s2 is equivalent to N/kg. To further explain;

Furthermore, the sign for acceleration due to gravity is negative (-) because it is directed downward.

STEP 3. After identifying the values. We can now start solving. Let’s first solve for (a) the work done
on the truck by the crane (Wapp).
We will use this equation, W = F │∆x│. We will only use the given values for force applied by the
crane (Fapp y), and the displacement (∆y). Let’s also consider the direction of the displacement. Take
note that the direction of the displacement is upward, therefore it is in +y axis. So, the final formula
here will be,

Wapp = Fapp y ∆y
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
SOLUTION for (a) the work done on the truck by the crane:

Given:
Fapp y = 50 kN
∆y = 4.0 m
Formula:
Wapp = Fapp y ∆y

3.a. Supply the given values to the formula Wapp = Fapp y ∆y, now we will have:

Wapp = (50 kN) (4.0 m)

3.b. Multiply (50 kN) (4.0 m). The result is,

Wapp = 200 kNm

3.c. Note that (Newton-meter) Nm is equivalent to Joule (J). Therefore, our final answer is:
Wapp = 200 Kj
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:

Step 4. Solve for (b) the work done on the truck by gravity (Wg). The given values we will
use here are the mass (m) of the truck, acceleration due to gravity (gy), and the displacement
(∆y).

Take note the Force (F) is equal to mass(m) times acceleration due to gravity (g). Therefore,
the formula Wapp = Fapp y ∆y will become, Wg = mg y ∆y.

SOLUTION for (b) the work done on the truck by gravity (Wg):

Given:
m = 4000 kg gy = -9.8 N/kg

∆y = 4.0 m
Formula:
Wg = mg y ∆y
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
4.a. Supply the given values to the formula Wg = mgy ∆y, we will have;

𝑁
𝑊𝑔 = (4000 kg) ( -9.8____ )(4.0𝑚)
𝑘𝑔

4.b. Cancel out the unit kg in 4000 kg and -9.8 N/kg, since they can be
divided. The result will be.
𝑁
𝑊𝑔 = (4000 kg) ( -9.8____ )(4.0𝑚) 𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑔 = (4000) ( -9.8 N)(4.0𝑚)

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DISCUSSION:
4.c. Multiply (4000) (-9.8 N) (4.0 m), the result is;

𝑊𝑔 = -156,800 Nm

4.d. Note that (Newton-meter) Nm is equivalent to Joule (J). Therefore,

𝑊𝑔 = -156,800 J

4.e. Since the value is too big, we will convert it to kJ. To do that,

1𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑔 = (-156,800 J)( _______ )
1000𝐽

-156,800𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑔 = _________
1000

Wg = -156.8 kJ
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DISCUSSION:

Step 5. Solve for (c) the net work done on the truck (Wnet). The
net work done on the truck is the sum of the work done by the
crane (Wapp y) and the work done by the acceleration due to
gravity (Wg) to the truck.

There are two ways to solve for the net work done on the truck.

A. Using the formula Wnet = Wapp y + Wg

B. Using Eq. (4) WTotal = Fnet x∆x
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WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION:
SOLUTION for (c) the net work done on the truck (Wnet):

A. Using the formula Wnet = Wapp y + Wg

Based on our solution for (a) the work done on the truck by
the crane,
Wapp y = 200 kJ and for (b) the work done on the truck by
gravity (Wg), Wg = 156.8 kJ. Supply this to the formula Wnet =
Wapp y + Wg, we have,

Wnet = 200 kJ + (-156.8 kJ)

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DISCUSSION:

C. Work in Scalar Product Notation

Study the particle moving along the arbitrary curve shown on the illustration above. The
component in Figure (b) is related to the angle 𝝋 between the directions of ⃗𝑭⃗ and ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗
by 𝐅 𝑭𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, so the work dW by ⃗𝑭⃗ for the displacement ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗ is

𝒅𝑾 𝒅𝓵 = 𝑭𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋𝒅𝓵

In scalar-product notation, the work 𝒅𝑾 done by force ⃗𝑭⃗ on a particle over an

infinitesimal displacement ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗ is

𝒅𝑾 𝒅𝓵 = 𝑭𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋𝒅𝓵 ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗

Where: 𝒅𝓵 = the magnitude of ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗

𝐅 = is the component of ⃗𝑭⃗ in the direction of ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗

The work done on a particle as it moves from point 1 to point 2 is

(If the force remains constant, the work can be expressed as 𝑾
⃗𝓵⃗⃗ , where ⃗𝓵⃗ is the displacement.)

When several forces ⃗𝑭⃗ act on a particle whose displacement is ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗ , the total work done on it
is

𝒅𝑾𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = ⃗𝑭1 ⃗𝒅𝓵⃗⃗

Sample Problem 4:
You push a box up a ramp using a constant horizontal 150-N force ⃗𝑭⃗ . For
each distance 5.00 m along the ramp, the box gains 3.00 m of height. Find
the work done by ⃗𝑭⃗ for each 5.00 m the box moves along the ramp (a)by
directly computing the scalar product from the components of ⃗𝑭⃗ and ⃗𝓵⃗ ,
where ⃗𝓵⃗ is the displacement, (b) by multiplying the product of the
magnitudes of ⃗𝑭⃗ and ⃗𝓵⃗ by 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, where 𝝋 is the angle between the
direction of ⃗𝑭⃗ and the direction of ⃗𝓵⃗ , (c)by finding 𝐅 (the component ⃗𝑭⃗ in
the direction of ⃗𝓵⃗ ) and multiplying it by 𝓵 (the magnitude of ⃗𝓵⃗ ), and (d)by
finding 𝓵 (the component ⃗𝓵⃗ in the direction of ⃗𝑭⃗ )and multiplying it by the
Draw a sketch of the box in its initial and final positions. Place coordinate axes on the sketch with
the x axis horizontal. Express the force and displacement vectors in component form and take the
scalar product. Then find the component of the force in the direction of the displacement, and vice
versa.

Pythagorean Theorem explains the relation between the sides of a right-angled triangle. It is
basically used to find the length of an unknown side and angle of a triangle.
Note: There are four (4) solutions to this problem. Study each solution.

First Solution:
Express ⃗𝑭⃗ (read as “force vector”) and ⃗𝓵⃗ (read as “displacement vector”) in
component form and take the scalar product.

Note, 𝒊̂ (read as “i-hat”) is a unit vector pointing the +x direction and the unit vector 𝒋̂
pointing the +y direction. (http://www.cbphysics.org/ n.d.)

SOLUTION:
⃗𝑭⃗ = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒊̂ +𝟎𝒋)̂ 𝐍
⃗𝓵⃗ = (𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝒊̂ +𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝒋)̂ 𝐦

Supply these values to the formula 𝑾 (This formula is the formula for total work).

𝑾 = 𝟒.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑱
Second Solution:
Calculate 𝑭𝓵 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, where 𝝋 is the angle between the directions of the two vectors as
shown. Equate this expression with the Part-(a) result and solve for 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋. Then solve
for the work:

SOLUTION:
Supply the needed values to the formula.

Now that we have the value for 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, we can now solve for work using the
formula, 𝑾 = 𝑭𝓵 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋. Supplying the given to the formula we have,

Third Solution:

Find 𝐅 and multiply it by 𝓵. To find 𝐅 , we will use the formula 𝐅

𝑭 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋. Supply the given values to the formula, we will have,
We will use the result to solve for work by multiplying it by
𝓵 = 𝟓.𝟎𝟎𝒎 by using the formula

Fourth Solution:
Multiply 𝑭 and 𝓵II , where 𝓵 II is the component of ⃗𝓵⃗ in the direction of ⃗𝑭⃗ . We will use the
formula 𝓵II= 𝓵𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋 for solving for 𝓵 and 𝑾=F𝓵 To solveII for the work done.

To solve for the work done,

The four different calculations give the same result for work which is 𝑾 =𝟒.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎2𝑱.
D. Work Done by a Varying Force, Straight-Line Motion
There are various situations in which a body moves along a curved path and is acted
on by a force that varies in magnitude, direction, or both. We need to be able to
compute the work done by the force in these more general cases. The work–energy
theorem holds true even when varying forces are considered and when the body’s path
is not straight.

Let’s consider straight-line motion along the x-axis with a force whose xcomponent 𝑭𝒙
may change as the body moves. (A real-life example is driving a car along a straight
road with stop signs, so the driver must alternately step on the gas and apply the
brakes.) Supposing a particle moves along the x-axis from point 𝒙1 to 𝒙2 (Figure 9).
Figure 10 is a graph of the x-component of force as a function of the particle’s
coordinate x. To find the work done by this force, we divide the total displacement into
small segments ∆𝒙𝒂,∆𝒙𝒃, and so on (Figure 11). We approximate the work done by the
force during segment ∆𝒙a as the average x-component of force 𝑭ax in

that segment multiplied by the x-displacement ∆𝒙a. We do this for each segment and
then add the results for all the segments. The work done by the force in the total
displacement from 𝒙1 to 𝒙2 is approximately
Fig ure 9 . Pa rtic le m o v in g fro m 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 in re sp o n se
to a c h a n g in g fo rc e in th e x -d ire c tio n

Fig ure 10.

Fig ure 11.

E. Gravitational potential energy near Earth’s surface

The system of interest consists of our planet, Earth, and one or more particles near
its surface (or bodies small enough to be considered as particles, compared to
Earth). The gravitational force on each particle (or body) is just its weight 𝒎𝒈 near
the surface of Earth, acting vertically down. According to Newton’s third law, each
particle exerts a force on Earth of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction.
Newton’s second law tells us that the magnitude of the acceleration produced by
each of these forces on Earth is mg divided by Earth’s mass. Since the ratio of the
mass of any ordinary object to the mass of Earth is vanishingly small, the motion of
Earth can be completely neglected. Therefore, we consider this system to be a
group of single-particle systems, subject to the uniform gravitational force of Earth.

The work done on a body by Earth’s uniform gravitational force, near its surface,
depended on the mass of the body, the acceleration due to gravity, and the
difference in height the body traversed. This work is the negative of the difference
in the gravitational potential energy, so that difference is
You can see from this that the gravitational potential energy function, near Earth’s surface, is

F. Elastic potential energy

Elastic potential energy is energy stored as a result of applying a force to deform an elastic
object.

In Work, we saw that the work done by a perfectly elastic spring, in one dimension, depends
only on the spring constant and the squares of the displacements from the unstretched position.
This work involves only the properties of a Hooke’s law interaction and not the properties of real
springs and whatever objects are attached to them. Therefore, we can define the difference of
elastic potential energy for a spring force as the negative of the work done by the spring force in
this equation before we consider systems that embody this type of force. Thus,

where the object travels from point A to point B. The potential energy function corresponding to
this difference is
If the spring force is the only force acting, it is simplest to take the zero of potential energy
at 𝑥 = 0, when the spring is at its unstretched length. Then, the constant in the previous
equation is zero. (Other choices may be more convenient if other forces are acting.)
G. Conservative Forces

A conservative force is one for which work done by or against it depends only on the starting
and ending points of a motion and not on the path taken.

The work done by a conservative force always has four properties:

1. It can be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of a potential-
energy function.
2. It is reversible.
3. It is independent of the path of the body and depends only on the starting and ending
points.
4. When the starting and ending points are the same, the total work is zero.

H. Potential Energy Diagrams and Stability

You can get a good deal of useful information about the dynamical behavior of a mechanical
system just by interpreting a graph of its potential energy as a function of position, called a
potential energy diagram.
This is most easily accomplished for a one-dimensional system, whose potential
energy can be plotted in one two-dimensional graph—for example, U(x) versus x—
on a piece of paper or a computer program. For systems whose motion is in more
than one dimension, the motion needs to be studied in three-dimensional space.
We will simplify our procedure for onedimensional motion only.

First, let’s look at an object, freely falling vertically, near the surface of Earth, in the
absence of air resistance. The mechanical energy of the object is conserved, 𝐸 = 𝐾
+𝑈, and the potential energy, with respect to zero at ground level, is 𝑼 ( 𝒚) = 𝒎𝒈𝒚,
which is a straight line through the origin with slope 𝒎𝒈.

Fig ure 1 2 . Th e p o te ntia l e n e rg y g ra p h fo r a n o b je c t in v e rtic a l fre e fa ll, w ith

v a rio u s q u a n titie s in d ic a te d .
 The line at energy E represents the constant mechanical energy of the object,
whereas the kinetic and potential energies, 𝑲A and 𝑼A, are indicated at a particular
height 𝒚A. You can see how the total energy is divided between kinetic and potential
energy as the object’s height changes. Since kinetic energy can never be negative,
there is a maximum potential energy and a maximum height, which an object with
the given total energy cannot exceed:

Quartic and Quadratic Potential Energy Diagram

The potential energy for a particle undergoing one-dimensional motion along the x-
axis is 𝑼(𝒙)= 𝟐(𝒙4 −𝒙2), where 𝑼 is in joules and 𝒙 is in meters. The particle is not
subject to any non-conservative forces and its mechanical energy is constant at 𝑬 =
−𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝑱. (a) Is the motion of the particle confined to any regions on the x-axis, and if
so, what are they? (b) Are there any equilibrium points, and if so, where are they
and are they stable or unstable?
Strategy:

First, we need to graph the potential energy as a function of x. The function is zero at
the origin, becomes negative as x increases in the positive or negative directions (𝒙2 is
larger than 𝒙4 for 𝒙 < 𝟏), and then becomes positive at sufficiently large |𝑥|. Your graph
should look like a double potential well, with the zeros determined by solving the
equation 𝑼 (𝒙) = 𝟎, and the extremes determined by examining the first and second
derivatives of 𝑼 (𝒙), as shown in Figure 13.

Fig ure 13 . Th e p o te n tia l e n e rg y g ra p h fo r a o n e -d im e n sio n a l, q u a rtic a n d

q u a d ra tic p o te n tia l e ne rg y, with va rio u s q u a n titie s ind ic a te d .
 You can find the values of (a) the allowed regions along the x-axis, for the given
value of the mechanical energy, from the condition that the kinetic energy can’t be
negative, and (b) the equilibrium points and their stability from the properties of the
force (stable for a relative minimum and unstable for a relative maximum of potential
energy).

You can just eyeball the graph to reach qualitative answers to the questions in
this example. That, after all, is the value of potential energy diagrams. You can see
that there are two allowed regions for the motion (𝐸 > 𝑈) and three equilibrium points
(slope 𝒅𝑼/𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎), of which the central one is unstable (𝒅2𝑼/𝒅𝒙 2 < 𝟎), and the other
two are stable 𝒅2𝑼/𝒅𝒙2 > 𝟎.

Solution:
a. To find the allowed regions for x, we use the condition

If we complete the square in 𝒙2, this condition simplifies to , which we can

solve to obtain
This represents two allowed regions, 𝑥𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥R and −𝑥R ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −𝑥p, where 𝑥p = 0.38 and 𝑥R = 0.92
(in meters).

b. To find the equilibrium points, we solve the equation

𝑑𝑈⁄𝑑𝑥 = 8𝑥3 −4𝑥 = 0

and find 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = ±𝑥𝑄, where 𝑥𝑄 = 1⁄ξ2 = 0.707 (meters). The second derivative
𝑑2𝑈⁄𝑑𝑥 2 = 24𝑥2 −4

is negative at 𝑥 = 0, so that position is a relative maximum and the equilibrium there is unstable.
The second derivative is positive at 𝑥 = ±𝑥𝑄, so these positions are relative minima and
represent stab equilibria.

Significance:
The particle in this example can oscillate in the allowed region about either of the two
stable equilibrium points we found, but it does not have enough energy to escape
from whichever potential well it happens to initially be in. The conservation of
mechanical energy and the relations between kinetic energy and speed, and potential
energy and force, enable you to deduce much information about the qualitative
behavior of the motion of a particle, as well as some quantitative information, from a
graph of its potential energy.
z

SUBMITTED BY: MA.CARMELA ZYRYLLE

G. ZERNA
SUBMITTED TO:MRS.KATHRYN NIERRAS
11 - STEM