Mobile Internet

Wireless Network Architectures and Applications

Sridhar Iyer
K R School of Information Technology
IIT Bombay

[email protected]
http://www.it.iitb.ac.in/~sri
 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

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 References
 J. Schiller, “Mobile Communications”, Addison Wesley, 2000
 802.11 Wireless LAN, IEEE standards, www.ieee.org
 Mobile IP, RFC 2002, RFC 334, www.ietf.org
 TCP over wireless, RFC 3150, RFC 3155, RFC 3449
 A. Mehrotra, “GSM System Engineering”, Artech House, 1997
 Bettstetter, Vogel and Eberspacher, “GPRS: Architecture, Protocols
and Air Interface”, IEEE Communications Survey 1999, 3(3).
 M.v.d. Heijden, M. Taylor. “Understanding WAP”, Artech House, 2000
 Mobile Ad hoc networks, RFC 2501

 Others websites:
– www.palowireless.com
– www.gsmworld.com; www.wapforum.org
– www.etsi.org; www.3gtoday.com
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 Wireless networks
 Access computing/communication services, on the move

 Cellular Networks
– traditional base station infrastructure systems

 Wireless LANs
– infrastructure as well as ad-hoc networks possible
– very flexible within the reception area
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)

 Ad hoc Networks
– useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
– military applications, rescue, home networking

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 Some mobile devices

Tablets
Palm-sized
Clamshell handhelds

Laptop computers Net–enabled mobile phones

 Limitations of the mobile environment
 Limitations of the Wireless Network
 limited communication bandwidth
 frequent disconnections
 heterogeneity of fragmented networks

 Limitations Imposed by Mobility

 route breakages
 lack of mobility awareness by system/applications

 Limitations of the Mobile Device

 short battery lifetime
 limited capacities
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 Wireless v/s Wired networks
 Regulations of frequencies
– Limited availability, coordination is required
– useful frequencies are almost all occupied
 Bandwidth and delays
– Low transmission rates
• few Kbits/s to some Mbit/s.
– Higher delays
• several hundred milliseconds
– Higher loss rates
• susceptible to interference, e.g., engines, lightning
 Always shared medium
– Lower security, simpler active attacking
– radio interface accessible for everyone
– Fake base stations can attract calls from mobile phones
– secure access mechanisms important
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 Cellular systems: Basic idea

 Single hop wireless connectivity

– Space divided into cells
– A base station is responsible to communicate with
hosts in its cell
– Mobile hosts can change cells while communicating
– Hand-off occurs when a mobile host starts
communicating via a new base station

 Factors for determining cell size

– No. of users to be supported
– Multiplexing and transmission technologies

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 Cellular concept
 Limited number of frequencies => limited channels
 High power antenna => limited number of users
 Smaller cells => frequency reuse possible => more users

 Base stations (BS): implement space division multiplex

– Cluster: group of nearby BSs that together use all available
channels
 Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
– FDMA, TDMA, CDMA may be used within a cell
 As demand increases (more channels are needed)
– Number of base stations is increased
– Transmitter power is decreased correspondingly to avoid
interference

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 Cellular system architecture
 Each cell is served by a base station (BS)
 Each BSS is connected to a mobile switching center
(MSC) through fixed links
 Each MSC is connected to other MSCs and PSTN

MSC MSC

HLR HLR
To other
VLR MSCs VLR

Sridhar Iyer PSTN IIT Bombay PSTN 10

 Outgoing call setup
 Outgoing call setup:
– User keys in the number and presses send
– Mobile transmits access request on uplink signaling
channel
– If network can process the call, BS sends a channel
allocation message
– Network proceeds to setup the connection
 Network activity:
– MSC determines current location of target mobile
using HLR, VLR and by communicating with other
MSCs
– Source MSC initiates a call setup message to MSC
covering target area
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 Incoming call setup
 Incoming call setup:
– Target MSC (covering current location of mobile)
initiates a paging message
– BSs forward the paging message on downlink
channel in coverage area
– If mobile is on (monitoring the signaling channel), it
responds to BS
– BS sends a channel allocation message and informs
MSC
 Network activity:
– Network completes the two halves of the connection

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 Hand-Offs
 BS initiated:
– Handoff occurs if signal level of mobile falls below threshold
– Increases load on BS
• Monitor signal level of each mobile
• Determine target BS for handoff
 Mobile assisted:
– Each BS periodically transmits beacon
– Mobile, on hearing stronger beacon from a new BS, initiates
the handoff
 Intersystem:
– Mobile moves across areas controlled by different MSC’s
– Handled similar to mobile assisted case with additional
HLR/VLR effort

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 Effect of mobility on protocol stack

 Application
– new applications and adaptations
 Transport
– congestion and flow control
 Network
– addressing and routing
 Link
– media access and handoff
 Physical
– transmission errors and interference

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 Mobile applications - 1

 Vehicles
– transmission of news, road condition etc
– ad-hoc network with near vehicles to prevent
accidents

 Emergencies
– early transmission of patient data to the hospital
– ad-hoc network in case of earthquakes, cyclones
– military ...

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 Mobile applications - 2
 Travelling salesmen
– direct access to central customer files
– consistent databases for all agents

 Web access
– outdoor Internet access
– intelligent travel guide with up-to-date
location dependent information

 Location aware services

– find services in the local environment
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 Mobile applications - 3

 Information services
– push: e.g., stock quotes
– pull: e.g., weather update

 Disconnected operations
– mobile agents, e.g., shopping

 Entertainment
– ad-hoc networks for multi user games
 Messaging

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 Mobile applications in the Industry

 Wireless access: (phone.com) openwave

 Alerting services: myalert.com
 Location services: (airflash) webraska.com
 Intranet applications: (imedeon) viryanet.com
 Banking services: macalla.com
 Mobile agents: tryllian.com
 ….

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 Bandwidth and applications
UMTS
EDGE
GPRS, CDMA 2000
CDMA 2.5G
2G
Speed, kbps 9.6 14.4 28 64 144 384 2000

Transaction Processing
Messaging/Text Apps
Voice/SMS
Location Services
Still Image Transfers
Internet/VPN Access
Database Access
Document Transfer
Low Quality Video
High Quality Video

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 Evolution of cellular networks

 First-generation: Analog cellular systems (450-900 MHz)

– Frequency shift keying; FDMA for spectrum sharing
– NMT (Europe), AMPS (US)
 Second-generation: Digital cellular systems (900, 1800 MHz)
– TDMA/CDMA for spectrum sharing; Circuit switching
– GSM (Europe), IS-136 (US), PDC (Japan)
– <9.6kbps data rates
 2.5G: Packet switching extensions
– Digital: GSM to GPRS; Analog: AMPS to CDPD
– <115kbps data rates
 3G: Full-fledged data services
– High speed, data and Internet services
– IMT-2000, UMTS
– <2Mbps data rates
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 GSM to GPRS
 Radio resources are allocated for only one or a
few packets at a time, so GPRS enables
– many users to share radio resources, and allow
efficient transport of packets
– connectivity to external packet data networks
– volume-based charging

 High data rates (up to 171 kbps in ideal case)

 GPRS carries SMS in data channels rather than
signaling channels as in GSM

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 UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecomm. Standard

 Global seamless operation in multi-cell environment

(SAT, macro, micro, pico)
 Global roaming: multi-mode, multi-band, low-cost
terminal, portable services & QoS

 High data rates at different mobile speeds: 144kbps at

vehicular speed (80km/h), 384 kbps at pedestrian
speed, and 2Mbps indoor (office/home)
 Multimedia interface to the internet
 Based on core GSM, conforms to IMT-2000
 W-CDMA as the air-interface

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 Evolution to 3G Technologies

2G 3G
IS-95B
cdma2000
CDMA

FDD
GSM W-CDMA

TDD
GPRS
EDGE & 136
HS outdoor

IS-136 136 HS
UWC-136
TDMA indoor
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 Wireless Technology Landscape

72 Mbps
Turbo .11a
54 Mbps 802.11{a,b}
5-11 Mbps 802.11b .11 p-to-p link
1-2 Mbps
Bluetooth
802.11 µwave p-to-p links

3G
384 Kbps WCDMA, CDMA2000
2G
56 Kbps IS-95, GSM, CDMA

Indoor Outdoor Mid range Long range Long distance

outdoor outdoor com.

10 – 30m 50 – 200m 200m – 4Km 5Km – 20Km 20m – 50Km

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 3G Network Architecture
Core Network
Wireless
Telephone
Access Network
Programmable Network
Gateway
Mobile Access Softswitch
Router
Application
IP Intranet Server

Access (HLR)
IP Intranet
IP Point User Profiles &
Base Stations Authentication
802.11

802.11
3G Air Wired Access
Internet
Interface
Access
Point
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 Wireless LANs

 Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan)

 Advantages
– very flexible within the reception area
– Ad-hoc networks possible
– (almost) no wiring difficulties
 Disadvantages
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks
– many proprietary solutions

 Infrastructure v/s ad-hoc networks (802.11)

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 Infrastructure vs. Adhoc Networks
infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP

AP wired network
AP

ad-hoc network

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Source: Schiller
 Difference Between Wired and
Wireless
Ethernet LAN Wireless LAN
B
A B C
A C

 If both A and C sense the channel to be idle at the same

time, they send at the same time.
 Collision can be detected at sender in Ethernet.
 Half-duplex radios in wireless cannot detect collision at
sender.
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 Hidden Terminal Problem

A B C
– A and C cannot hear each other.
– A sends to B, C cannot receive A.
– C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium
(CS fails)
– Collision occurs at B.
– A cannot receive the collision (CD fails).
– A is “hidden” for C.

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 IEEE 802.11

 Acknowledgements for reliability

 Signaling packets for collision avoidance
– RTS (request to send)
– CTS (clear to send)
 Signaling (RTS/CTS) packets contain
– sender address
– receiver address
– duration (packet size + ACK)
 Power-save mode

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 Spectrum War: Status today
Enterprise 802.11 Wireless Carrier Public 802.11
Network

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Source: Pravin Bhagwat
 Spectrum War: Evolution
Enterprise 802.11 Wireless Carrier Public 802.11
Network

 Market consolidation
 Entry of Wireless Carriers
 Entry of new players
 Footprint growth

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 32

Source: Pravin Bhagwat
 Spectrum War: Steady State
Enterprise 802.11 Wireless Carrier Public 802.11
Network

Virtual Carrier

 Emergence of virtual
carriers
 Roaming agreements

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Source: Pravin Bhagwat
 Routing and Mobility

 Finding a path from a source to a destination

 Issues
– Frequent route changes
– Route changes may be related to host movement
– Low bandwidth links

 Goal of routing protocols

– decrease routing-related overhead
– find short routes
– find “stable” routes (despite mobility)

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 Mobile IP: Basic Idea

MN Router
S
3

Home
agent

Router Router
1 2

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Source: Vaidya
 Mobile IP: Basic Idea

move

Router
S MN
3

Foreign agent

Home agent

Router Router Packets are tunneled

using IP in IP
1 2

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Source: Vaidya
 TCP over wireless
 TCP provides
– reliable ordered delivery (uses retransmissions, if
necessary)
– cumulative ACKs (an ACK acknowledges all
contiguously received data)
– duplicate ACKs (whenever an out-of-order segment is
received)
– end-to-end semantics (receiver sends ACK after data
has reached)
– implements congestion avoidance and control using
congestion window

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 TCP over wireless

 Factors affecting TCP over wireless:

– Wireless transmission errors
• may cause fast retransmit, which results in reduction in
congestion window size
• reducing congestion window in response to errors is
unnecessary
– Multi-hop routes on shared wireless medium
• Longer connections are at a disadvantage compared to
shorter ones, because they have to contend for wireless
access at each hop
– Route failures due to mobility

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 Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
 I-TCP splits the TCP connection
– no changes to the TCP protocol for wired hosts
– TCP connection is split at the foreign agent
– hosts in wired network do not notice
characteristics of wireless part
– no real end-to-end connection any longer

mobile host
access point
(foreign agent) „wired“ Internet

„wireless“ TCP standard TCP

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Source: Schiller
 Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

 Handling of lengthy or frequent disconnections

 M-TCP splits as I-TCP does
– unmodified TCP for fixed network to foreign agent
– optimized TCP for FA to MH
 Foreign Agent
– monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
• set sender window size to 0
• sender automatically goes into persistent mode
– no caching, no retransmission

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 Application Adaptations for Mobility

 Design Issues
 System transparent v/s System aware
 Application transparent v/s Application aware
 Models
 conventional, “unaware” client/server model
 client/proxy/server model
 caching/pre-fetching model
 mobile agent model

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 World Wide Web and Mobility
 HTTP characteristics
– designed for large bandwidth, low delay
– stateless, client/server, request/response
communication
– connection oriented, one connection per request
– TCP 3-way handshake, DNS lookup overheads
 HTML characteristics
– designed for computers with “high” performance,
color high-resolution display, mouse, hard disk
– typically, web pages optimized for design, not for
communication; ignore end-system characteristics

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 System Support for Mobile WWW
 Enhanced browsers
– client-aware support for mobility
 Proxies
– Client proxy: pre-fetching, caching, off-line use
– Network proxy: adaptive content transformation
for connections
– Client and network proxy
 Enhanced servers
– server-aware support for mobility
– serve the content in multiple ways, depending on
client capabilities
 New protocols/languages
– WAP/WML
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 The Client/Proxy/Server Model

 Proxy functions as a client to the fixed network

server
 Proxy functions as a mobility-aware server to
mobile client

 Proxy may be placed in the mobile host (Coda),

or the fixed network, or both (WebExpress)

 Enables thin client design for resource-poor

mobile devices
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 Web Proxy in WebExpress

The WebExpress Intercept Model

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Source: Helal
 Wireless Application Protocol
 Browser
– “Micro browser”, similar to existing web browsers
 Script language
– Similar to Javascript, adapted to mobile devices
 Gateway
– Transition from wireless to wired world
 Server
– “Wap/Origin server”, similar to existing web servers
 Protocol layers
– Transport layer, security layer, session layer etc.
 Telephony application interface
– Access to telephony functions

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 WAP: Network Elements
fixed network wireless network

Internet HTML WML WAP Binary WML

filter proxy

HTML WML
HTML
filter/ Binary WML
WAP
web HTML proxy
server

WTA Binary WML

server
PSTN

Binary WML: binary file format for clients

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Source: Schiller
 WAP: Reference Model
Internet A-SAP WAP

HTML, Java Application Layer (WAE) additional services

and applications
S-SAP
Session Layer (WSP)
HTTP TR-SAP
Transaction Layer (WTP)
SEC-SAP
SSL/TLS Security Layer (WTLS)
T-SAP

TCP/IP, Transport Layer (WDP) WCMP

UDP/IP,
media Bearers (GSM, CDPD, ...)

WAE comprises WML (Wireless Markup Language), WML Script, WTAI etc.

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Source: Schiller
 WAP Stack Overview
 WDP
– functionality similar to UDP in IP networks
 WTLS
– functionality similar to SSL/TLS (optimized for wireless)
 WTP
– Class 0: analogous to UDP
– Class 1: analogous to TCP (without connection setup overheads)
– Class 2: analogous to RPC (optimized for wireless)
– features of “user acknowledgement”, “hold on”
 WSP
– WSP/B: analogous to http 1.1 (add features of suspend/resume)
– method: analogous to RPC/RMI
– features of asynchronous invocations, push (confirmed/unconfirmed)
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 The Mobile Agent Model

 Mobile agent receives client request and

 Mobile agent moves into fixed network

 Mobile agent acts as a client to the server

 Mobile agent performs transformations and filtering

 Mobile agent returns back to mobile platform, when

the client is connected

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 Mobile Agents: Example

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 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

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 How Wireless LANs are different

 Destination address does not equal destination

location
 The media impact the design
– wireless LANs intended to cover reasonable
geographic distances must be built from basic
coverage blocks
 Impact of handling mobile (and portable)
stations
– Propagation effects
– Mobility management
– power management

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 Wireless Media
 Physical layers in wireless networks
– Use a medium that has neither absolute nor readily
observable boundaries outside which stations are unable to
receive frames
– Are unprotected from outside signals
– Communicate over a medium significantly less reliable than
wired PHYs
– Have dynamic topologies
– Lack full connectivity and therefore the assumption normally
made that every station (STA) can hear every other STA in
invalid (I.e., STAs may be “hidden” from each other)
– Have time varying and asymmetric propagation properties

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 802.11: Motivation
 Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks
 Example CSMA/CD
– Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
– send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a
collision occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
 Medium access problems in wireless networks
– signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
– sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
– sender may not “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
– CS might not work, e.g. if a terminal is “hidden”
 Hidden and exposed terminals
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 Solution for Hidden/Exposed Terminals
 A first sends a Request-to-Send (RTS) to B
 On receiving RTS, B responds Clear-to-Send (CTS)
 Hidden node C overhears CTS and keeps quiet
– Transfer duration is included in both RTS and CTS
 Exposed node overhears a RTS but not the CTS
– D’s transmission cannot interfere at B

RTS RTS
D A B C
CTS CTS
DATA
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 IEEE 802.11
 Wireless LAN standard defined in the unlicensed
spectrum (2.4 GHz and 5 GHz U-NII bands)

 Standards covers the MAC sublayer and PHY layers

 Three different physical layers in the 2.4 GHz band
– FHSS, DSSS and IR
 OFDM based PHY layer in the 5 GHz band

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 Components of IEEE 802.11
architecture
 The basic service set (BSS) is the basic building
block of an IEEE 802.11 LAN
 The ovals can be thought of as the coverage area
within which member stations can directly
communicate
 The Independent BSS (IBSS) is the simplest LAN. It
may consist of as few as two stations
ad-hoc network BSS1 BSS2

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 802.11 - ad-hoc network (DCF)
802.11 LAN

STA1  Direct communication

BSS1 STA3
within a limited range
– Station (STA):
terminal with access
STA2
mechanisms to the
wireless medium
– Basic Service Set (BSS):
BSS2 group of stations using the
same radio frequency
STA5

STA4 802.11 LAN

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Source: Schiller
 802.11 - infrastructure network (PCF)
Station (STA)
802.11 LAN – terminal with access mechanisms
802.x LAN
to the wireless medium and radio
contact to the access point
STA1 Basic Service Set (BSS)
BSS1 – group of stations using the same
Access Portal radio frequency
Point Access Point
– station integrated into the
Distribution System
wireless LAN and the distribution
Access system
ESS Point Portal
– bridge to other (wired) networks
BSS2
Distribution System
– interconnection network to form
one logical network (EES:
Extended Service Set) based
STA2 802.11 LAN STA3 on several BSS

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Source: Schiller
 Distribution System (DS) concepts
 The Distribution system interconnects multiple BSSs
 802.11 standard logically separates the wireless
medium from the distribution system – it does not
preclude, nor demand, that the multiple media be
same or different
 An Access Point (AP) is a STA that provides access
to the DS by providing DS services in addition to
acting as a STA.
 Data moves between BSS and the DS via an AP
 The DS and BSSs allow 802.11 to create a wireless
network of arbitrary size and complexity called the
Extended Service Set network (ESS)

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 802.11- in the TCP/IP stack
fixed terminal
mobile terminal

server

infrastructure network

access point

application application
TCP TCP
IP IP
LLC LLC LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY

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 802.11 - Layers and functions

 MAC  PLCP Physical Layer Convergence

Protocol
– access mechanisms,
fragmentation, encryption – clear channel assessment
signal (carrier sense)
 MAC Management
 PMD Physical Medium Dependent
– synchronization, roaming,
MIB, power management – modulation, coding
 PHY Management
– channel selection, MIB

Station Management
LLC  Station Management
DLC

MAC MAC Management – coordination of all

management functions
PLCP
PHY

PHY Management
PMD

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 802.11 - Physical layer
 3 versions: 2 radio (typically 2.4 GHz), 1 IR
– data rates 1, 2, or 11 Mbit/s
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
– spreading, despreading, signal strength, typically 1 Mbit/s
– min. 2.5 frequency hops/s (USA), two-level GFSK modulation
 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
– DBPSK modulation for 1 Mbit/s (Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying),
DQPSK for 2 Mbit/s (Differential Quadrature PSK)
– preamble and header of a frame is always transmitted with 1 Mbit/s
– chipping sequence: +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1 (Barker code)
– max. radiated power 1 W (USA), 100 mW (EU), min. 1mW
 Infrared
– 850-950 nm, diffuse light, typ. 10 m range
– carrier detection, energy detection, synchonization

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 Spread-spectrum communications

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Source: Intersil
 DSSS Barker Code modulation

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Source: Intersil
 DSSS properties

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Source: Intersil
 802.11 - MAC layer

 Traffic services
– Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory) – DCF
– Time-Bounded Service (optional) - PCF

 Access methods
– DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized back-off mechanism
• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
– DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)
• avoids hidden terminal problem
– PCF (optional)
• access point polls terminals according to a list

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 802.11 - Carrier Sensing
 In IEEE 802.11, carrier sensing is performed
– at the air interface (physical carrier sensing), and
– at the MAC layer (virtual carrier sensing)
 Physical carrier sensing
– detects presence of other users by analyzing all detected
packets
– Detects activity in the channel via relative signal strength
from other sources
 Virtual carrier sensing is done by sending MPDU duration
information in the header of RTS/CTS and data frames
 Channel is busy if either mechanisms indicate it to be
– Duration field indicates the amount of time (in microseconds)
required to complete frame transmission
– Stations in the BSS use the information in the duration field to
adjust their network allocation vector (NAV)

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 802.11 - Reliability
 Use of acknowledgements
– When B receives DATA from A, B sends an ACK
– If A fails to receive an ACK, A retransmits the DATA
– Both C and D remain quiet until ACK (to prevent collision of
ACK)
– Expected duration of transmission+ACK is included in
RTS/CTS packets

RTS RTS
D A B C
CTS CTS
DATA

ACK

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 70

 802.11 - Priorities

 defined through different inter frame spaces – mandatory idle time

intervals between the transmission of frames
 SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing)
– highest priority, for ACK, CTS, polling response
– SIFSTime and SlotTime are fixed per PHY layer
– (10 s and 20 s respectively in DSSS)
 PIFS (PCF IFS)
– medium priority, for time-bounded service using PCF
– PIFSTime = SIFSTime + SlotTime
 DIFS (DCF IFS)
– lowest priority, for asynchronous data service
– DCF-IFS (DIFS): DIFSTime = SIFSTime + 2xSlotTime

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 71

 802.11 - CSMA/CA
contention window
DIFS DIFS (randomized back-off
mechanism)

medium busy next frame

direct access if t
medium is free  DIFS slot time

– station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier Sense

based on CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
– if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame Space
(IFS), the station can start sending (IFS depends on service type)
– if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then
the station must additionally wait a random back-off time (collision
avoidance, multiple of slot-time)
– if another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of
the station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 72

 802.11 –CSMA/CA example
DIFS DIFS DIFS DIFS
boe bor boe bor boe busy
station1

boe busy
station2

busy
station3

boe busy boe bor

station4

boe bor boe busy boe bor

station5
t

busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.) boe elapsed backoff time

packet arrival at MAC bor residual backoff time

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 73

 802.11 - Collision Avoidance
 Collision avoidance: Once channel becomes idle, the
node waits for a randomly chosen duration before
attempting to transmit
 DCF
– When transmitting a packet, choose a backoff interval in the
range [0,cw]; cw is contention window
– Count down the backoff interval when medium is idle
– Count-down is suspended if medium becomes busy
– When backoff interval reaches 0, transmit RTS
 Time spent counting down backoff intervals is part of
MAC overhead

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 74

 DCF Example

B1 = 25 B1 = 5
wait data

data wait
B2 = 20 B2 = 15 B2 = 10

B1 and B2 are backoff intervals

cw = 31 at nodes 1 and 2

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 75

 802.11 - Congestion Control

 Contention window (cw) in DCF: Congestion

control achieved by dynamically choosing cw
 large cw leads to larger backoff intervals
 small cw leads to larger number of collisions

 Binary Exponential Backoff in DCF:

– When a node fails to receive CTS in response to
its RTS, it increases the contention window
• cw is doubled (up to a bound CWmax)
– Upon successful completion data transfer, restore
cw to CWmin
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 76
 802.11 - CSMA/CA II
 station has to wait for DIFS before sending data
 receivers acknowledge at once (after waiting for SIFS) if the packet
was received correctly (CRC)
 automatic retransmission of data packets in case of transmission
errors

DIFS
data
sender
SIFS
ACK
receiver
DIFS
other data
stations t
waiting time contention

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 77

 802.11 –RTS/CTS
 station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS
(reservation determines amount of time the data packet needs the medium)
 acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
 sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
 other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS

DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK
receiver

NAV (RTS) DIFS

other NAV (CTS) data
stations t
defer access contention

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 78

 Fragmentation

DIFS
RTS frag1 frag2
sender
SIFS SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK1 SIFS ACK2
receiver

NAV (RTS)
NAV (CTS)
NAV (frag1) DIFS
other NAV (ACK1) data
stations t
contention

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 79

 802.11 - Point Coordination Function

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 80

 802.11 - PCF I

t0 t1
SuperFrame

medium busy PIFS SIFS SIFS

D1 D2
point
coordinator SIFS SIFS
U1 U2
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 81

 802.11 - PCF II

t2 t3 t4

PIFS SIFS
D3 D4 CFend
point
coordinator SIFS
U4
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV contention free period contention t
period

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 82

 CFP structure and Timing

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 83

 PCF- Data transmission

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 84

 Polling Mechanisms

 With DCF, there is no mechanism to guarantee

minimum delay for time-bound services
 PCF wastes bandwidth (control overhead) when
network load is light, but delays are bounded
 With Round Robin (RR) polling, 11% of time was
used for polling
 This values drops to 4 % when optimized polling is
used
 Implicit signaling mechanism for STAs to indicate
when they have data to send improves performance

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 85

 Coexistence of PCF and DCF
 PC controls frame transfers during a Contention Free
Period (CFP).
– CF-Poll control frame is used by the PC to invite a station to
send data
– CF-End is used to signal the end of the CFP
 The CFP alternates with a CP, when DCF controls
frame transfers
– The CP must be large enough to send at least one
maximum-sized MPDU including RTS/CTS/ACK
 CFPs are generated at the CFP repetition rate and
each CFP begins with a beacon frame

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 86

 802.11 - Frame format
 Types
– control frames, management frames, data frames
 Sequence numbers
– important against duplicated frames due to lost ACKs
 Addresses
– receiver, transmitter (physical), BSS identifier, sender (logical)
 Miscellaneous
– sending time, checksum, frame control, data

bytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4
Frame Duration Address Address Address Sequence Address
Data CRC
Control ID 1 2 3 Control 4

version, type, fragmentation, security, ...

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 87

 Frame Control Field

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 88

 Types of Frames

 Control Frames
– RTS/CTS/ACK
– CF-Poll/CF-End
 Management Frames
– Beacons
– Probe Request/Response
– Association Request/Response
– Dissociation/Reassociation
– Authentication/Deauthentication
– ATIM
 Data Frames

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 89

 MAC address format
scenario to DS from address 1 address 2 address 3 address 4
DS
ad-hoc network 0 0 DA SA BSSID -
infrastructure 0 1 DA BSSID SA -
network, from AP
infrastructure 1 0 BSSID SA DA -
network, to AP
infrastructure 1 1 RA TA DA SA
network, within DS

DS: Distribution System

AP: Access Point
DA: Destination Address
SA: Source Address
BSSID: Basic Service Set Identifier
RA: Receiver Address
TA: Transmitter Address

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 90

 802.11 - MAC management
 Synchronization
– try to find a LAN, try to stay within a LAN
– timer etc.
 Power management
– sleep-mode without missing a message
– periodic sleep, frame buffering, traffic measurements
 Association/Reassociation
– integration into a LAN
– roaming, i.e. change networks by changing access points
– scanning, i.e. active search for a network
 MIB - Management Information Base
– managing, read, write

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 91

 802.11 - Synchronization

 All STAs within a BSS are synchronized to a common

clock
– PCF mode: AP is the timing master
• periodically transmits Beacon frames containing Timing
Synchronization function (TSF)
• Receiving stations accepts the timestamp value in TSF
– DCF mode: TSF implements a distributed algorithm
• Each station adopts the timing received from any beacon that has
TSF value later than its own TSF timer
 This mechanism keeps the synchronization of the TSF
timers in a BSS to within 4 s plus the maximum
propagation delay of the PHY layer

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 92

 Synchronization using a Beacon
(infrastructure)

beacon interval

B B B B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 93

 Synchronization using a Beacon (ad-
hoc)

beacon interval

B1 B1
station1

B2 B2
station2

busy busy busy busy

medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame random delay

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 94

 802.11 - Power management
 Idea: switch the transceiver off if not needed
– States of a station: sleep and awake
 Timing Synchronization Function (TSF)
– stations wake up at the same time
 Infrastructure
– Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
• list of unicast receivers transmitted by AP
– Delivery Traffic Indication Map (DTIM)
• list of broadcast/multicast receivers transmitted by AP
 Ad-hoc
– Ad-hoc Traffic Indication Map (ATIM)
• announcement of receivers by stations buffering frames
• more complicated - no central AP
• collision of ATIMs possible (scalability?)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 95

 802.11 - Energy conservation

 Power Saving in IEEE 802.11 (Infrastructure

Mode)
– An Access Point periodically transmits a beacon
indicating which nodes have packets waiting for them
– Each power saving (PS) node wakes up periodically
to receive the beacon
– If a node has a packet waiting, then it sends a PS-
Poll
• After waiting for a backoff interval in [0,CWmin]
– Access Point sends the data in response to PS-poll

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 96

 Power saving with wake-up patterns
(infrastructure)
TIM interval DTIM interval

D B T T d D B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium

p d
station
t
T TIM D DTIM awake

B broadcast/multicast p PS poll d data transmission

to/from the station

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 97

 Power saving with wake-up patterns
(ad-hoc)
ATIM
window beacon interval

B1 A D B1
station1

B2 B2 a d
station2

t
B beacon frame random delay A transmit ATIM D transmit data

awake a acknowledge ATIM d acknowledge data

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 98

 802.11 - Roaming
 No or bad connection in PCF mode? Then perform:
 Scanning
– scan the environment, i.e., listen into the medium for beacon signals or
send probes into the medium and wait for an answer
 Reassociation Request
– station sends a request to one or several AP(s)
 Reassociation Response
– success: AP has answered, station can now participate
– failure: continue scanning
 AP accepts Reassociation Request
– signal the new station to the distribution system
– the distribution system updates its data base (i.e., location information)
– typically, the distribution system now informs the old AP so it can release
resources

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 99

 Hardware
 Original WaveLAN card (NCR)
– 914 MHz Radio Frequency
– Transmit power 281.8 mW
– Transmission Range ~250 m (outdoors) at 2Mbps
– SNRT 10 dB (capture)
 WaveLAN II (Lucent)
– 2.4 GHz radio frequency range
– Transmit Power 30mW
– Transmission range 376 m (outdoors) at 2 Mbps (60m
indoors)
– Receive Threshold = –81dBm
– Carrier Sense Threshold = -111dBm

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 100

 802.11 current status

802.11i LLC
security
WEP MAC
802.11f MAC Mgmt
Inter Access Point Protocol

802.11e MIB
QoS enhancements
PHY
DSSS FH IR

OFDM
802.11b
5,11 Mbps
802.11a
6,9,12,18,24
802.11g 36,48,54 Mbps
20+ Mbps

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 101

 IEEE 802.11 Summary

 Infrastructure (PCF) and adhoc (DCF) modes

 Signaling packets for collision avoidance

– Medium is reserved for the duration of the transmission
– Beacons in PCF
– RTS-CTS in DCF

 Acknowledgements for reliability

 Binary exponential backoff for congestion control
 Power save mode for energy conservation

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 102

 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 103

 Traditional Routing
 A routing protocol sets up a routing table in
routers

 Routing protocol is typically based on

Sridhar Distance-Vector
Iyer orIITLink-State
Bombay algorithms 104
 Routing and Mobility

 Finding a path from a source to a destination

 Issues
– Frequent route changes
• amount of data transferred between route changes may
be much smaller than traditional networks
– Route changes may be related to host movement
– Low bandwidth links

 Goal of routing protocols

– decrease routing-related overhead
– find short routes
– find “stable” routes (despite mobility)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 105
 Mobile IP (RFC 3220): Motivation
 Traditional routing
– based on IP address; network prefix determines the subnet
– change of physical subnet implies
• change of IP address (conform to new subnet), or
• special routing table entries to forward packets to new subnet
 Changing of IP address
– DNS updates take to long time
– TCP connections break
– security problems
 Changing entries in routing tables
– does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent
changes in the location
– security problems
 Solution requirements
– retain same IP address, use same layer 2 protocols
– authentication of registration
Sridhar Iyer messages, …
IIT Bombay 106
 Mobile IP: Basic Idea

MN Router
S
3

Home
agent

Router Router
1 2

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 107

 Mobile IP: Basic Idea

move

Router
S MN
3

Foreign agent

Home agent

Router Router Packets are tunneled

using IP in IP
1 2

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 108

 Mobile IP: Terminology
 Mobile Node (MN)
– node that moves across networks without changing its IP address
 Home Agent (HA)
– host in the home network of the MN, typically a router
– registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP packets to the COA
 Foreign Agent (FA)
– host in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
– forwards tunneled packets to the MN, typically the default router
for MN
 Care-of Address (COA)
– address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
– actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
 Correspondent Node (CN)
– host with which MN is “corresponding” (TCP connection)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 109

 Data transfer to the mobile system
HA
2
MN

home network receiver

3
Internet

FA foreign
network

1 1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

CN HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
by encapsulation
sender
3. FA forwards the packet to the MN

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 110

Source: Schiller
 Data transfer from the mobile system
HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

CN of the receiver as usual,
FA works as default router
receiver

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 111

Source: Schiller
 Mobile IP: Basic Operation
 Agent Advertisement
– HA/FA periodically send advertisement messages into their
physical subnets
– MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in home/foreign
network
– MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
 MN Registration
– MN signals COA to the HA via the FA
– HA acknowledges via FA to MN
– limited lifetime, need to be secured by authentication
 HA Proxy
– HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems)
– packets to the MN are sent to the HA
– independent of changes in COA/FA
 Packet Tunneling
–
Sridhar Iyer HA to MN via FA IIT Bombay 112
 Agent advertisement
0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type code checksum
#addresses addr. size lifetime
router address 1
preference level 1
router address 2
preference level 2
...

type length sequence number

registration lifetime R B H F M G V reserved
COA 1
COA 2
...

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 113

 Registration
MN re FA HA MN re HA
gist gist
requ ration requ ration
es t e st
regi
s
requ tration
est
tion
stra
regi
y
n repl
i s t ratio
reg
repl
y t
n
i st ratio
reg
y
repl

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 114

 Registration request
0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type S B DMG V rsv lifetime
home address
home agent
COA
identification

extensions . . .

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 115

 IP-in-IP encapsulation
 IP-in-IP-encapsulation (mandatory in RFC 2003)
– tunnel between HA and COA

ver. IHL TOS length

IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL IP-in-IP IP checksum
IP address of HA
Care-of address COA
ver. IHL TOS length
IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN
TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 116

 Mobile IP: Other Issues
 Reverse Tunneling
– firewalls permit only “topological correct“ addresses
– a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now
topological correct

 Optimizations
– Triangular Routing
• HA informs sender the current location of MN
– Change of FA
• new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now
forwards remaining packets to new FA

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 117

 Mobile IP Summary
 Mobile node moves to new location
 Agent Advertisement by foreign agent
 Registration of mobile node with home agent
 Proxying by home agent for mobile node
 Encapsulation of packets
 Tunneling by home agent to mobile node via
foreign agent

 Reverse tunneling
 Optimizations for triangular routing
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 118
 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 119

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Reliable ordered delivery
– Acknowledgements and Retransmissions
 End-to-end semantics
– Acknowledgements sent to TCP sender confirm
delivery of data received by TCP receiver
– Ack for data sent only after data has reached
receiver
– Cumulative Ack

 Implements congestion avoidance and control

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 120

 Window Based Flow Control
 Sliding window protocol
 Window size minimum of
– receiver’s advertised window - determined by
available buffer space at the receiver
– congestion window - determined by the sender,
based on feedback from the network

Sender’s window

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Acks received Not transmitted

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 121

 Basic TCP Behaviour
14 Congestion
12 avoidance
Congestion Window size

10
(segments)

8 Slow start
6 threshold
Slow start
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (round trips)

Example assumes that acks are not delayed

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 122
 TCP: Detecting Packet Loss

 Retransmission timeout
– Initiate Slow Start

 Duplicate acknowledgements
– Initiate Fast Retransmit

 Assumes that ALL packet losses are due to

congestion

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 123

 TCP after Timeout
C ongestion w indow (segm ents)
After timeout
25
cwnd = 20
20

15

10
ssthresh = 8 ssthresh = 10
5

Time (round trips)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 124

 TCP after Fast Retransmit
After fast recovery

10
Receiver’s advertized window
8
Window size (segments)

6
4
2
0

Time (round trips)

After fast retransmit and fast recovery window size

is
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 125
reduced in half.
 Impact of Transmission Errors

 Wireless channel may have bursty random errors

 Burst errors may cause timeout

 Random errors may cause fast retransmit
 TCP cannot distinguish between packet losses
due to congestion and transmission errors

 Unnecessarily reduces congestion window

 Throughput suffers

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 126

 Split Connection Approach

 End-to-end TCP connection is broken into one

connection on the wired part of route and one
over wireless part of the route

 Connection between wireless host MH and fixed

host FH goes through base station BS
 FH-MH = FH-BS + BS-MH

FH BS MH

Fixed Host Base Station Mobile Host

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 127
 I-TCP: Split Connection Approach

Per-TCP connection state

TCP connection TCP connection

application application application

rxmt
transport transport transport
network network network
link link link
physical physical physical

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay wireless 128

 Snoop Protocol
 Buffers data packets at the base station BS
– to allow link layer retransmission
 When dupacks received by BS from MH
– retransmit on wireless link, if packet present in buffer
– drop dupack

 Prevents fast retransmit at TCP sender FH

FH BS MH

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 129

 Snoop Protocol

Per TCP-connection state

TCP connection

application application application

transport transport transport
network network network
rxmt
link link link
physical physical physical

FH BS MH
wireless
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 130
 Impact of Handoffs

 Split connection approach

– hard state at base station must be moved to new base station
 Snoop protocol
– soft state need not be moved
– while the new base station builds new state, packet losses may
not be recovered locally

 Frequent handoffs a problem for schemes that rely on

significant amount of hard/soft state at base stations
– hard state should not be lost
– soft state needs to be recreated to benefit performance

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 131

 M-TCP
 Similar to the split connection approach, M-TCP
splits one TCP connection into two logical parts
– the two parts have independent flow control as in I-
TCP
 The BS does not send an ack to MH, unless BS
has received an ack from MH
– maintains end-to-end semantics
 BS withholds ack for the last byte ack’d by MH
Ack 999 Ack 1000

FH BS MH

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 132

 M-TCP

 When a new ack is received with receiver’s

advertised window = 0, the sender enters
persist mode
 Sender does not send any data in persist mode
– except when persist timer goes off

 When a positive window advertisement is

received, sender exits persist mode
 On exiting persist mode, RTO and cwnd are
same as before the persist mode

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 133

 FreezeTCP
 M-TCP needs help from base station
– Base station withholds ack for one byte
– The base station uses this ack to send a zero window
advertisement when a mobile host moves to another
cell

 FreezeTCP requires the receiver to send zero

window advertisement (ZWA) Mobile
TCP receiver

FH BS MH

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 134

 TCP over wireless summary
 Assuming that packet loss implies congestion is
invalid in wireless mobile environments
 Invoking congestion control in response to
packet loss is in appropriate

 Several proposals to adapt TCP to wireless

environments
 Modifications at
– Fixed Host
– Base Station
– Mobile Host
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 135
 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 136

 GSM: System Architecture

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 137

 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 One per cell
 Consists of high speed transmitter and receiver
 Function of BTS
– Provides two channel
Signalling and Data Channel
Message scheduling
Random access detection
– Performs error protection coding for the radio
channel
• Rate adaptation

 Identified by BTS Identity Code (BSIC)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 138
 Base Station Controller (BSC)
 Controls multiple BTS
 Consists of essential control and protocol
intelligence entities
 Functions of BSC
– Performs radio resource management
– Assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for all the
MSs in its area
– Reallocation of frequencies among cells
– Hand over protocol is executed here
– Time and frequency synchronization signals to BTSs
– Time Delay Measurement and notification of an MS
to BTS
– Power Management of BTS and MS
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 139
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
 Switching node of a PLMN
 Allocation of radio resource (RR)
– Handover
 Mobility of subscribers
– Location registration of subscriber
 There can be several MSC in a PLMN

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 140

 Gateway MSC (GMSC)

 Connects mobile network to a fixed network

– Entry point to a PLMN
 Usually one per PLMN
 Request routing information from the HLR and
routes the connection to the local MSC

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 141

 Air Interface: Physical Channel
 Uplink/Downlink of 25MHz
– 890 -915 MHz for Up link
– 935 - 960 MHz for Down link
 Combination of frequency division and time
division multiplexing
– FDMA
– 124 channels of 200 kHz
– 200 kHz guard band
– TDMA
– Burst
 Modulation used
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 142

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 143
 Bursts

 Building unit of physical channel

 Types of bursts
– Normal
– Synchronization
– Frequency Correction
– Dummy
– Access

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 144

 Normal Burst

 Normal Burst
– 2*(3 head bit + 57 data bits + 1 signaling bit) + 26
training sequence bit + 8.25 guard bit

– Used for all except RACH, FSCH & SCH

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 145

 Air Interface: Logical Channel
 Traffic Channel (TCH)

 Signaling Channel
– Broadcast Channel (BCH)
– Common Control Channel (CCH)
– Dedicated/Associated Control Channel
(DCCH/ACCH)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 146

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 147
 Traffic Channel

 Transfer either encoded speech or user data

 Bidirectional

 Full Rate TCH

– Rate 22.4kbps
– Bm interface

 Half Rate TCH

– Rate 11.2 kbps
– Lm interface

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 148

 Full Rate Speech Coding
 Speech Coding for 20ms segments
– 260 bits at the output
– Effective data rate 13kbps
 Unequal error protection
– 182 bits are protected
• 50 + 132 bits = 182 bits
– 78 bits unprotected
 Channel Encoding
– Codes 260 bits into (8 x 57 bit blocks) 456 bits
 Interleaving
– 2 blocks of different set interleaved on a normal
burst (save damages by error bursts)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 149
 Speech 20 ms 20 ms

Speech Coder Speech Coder

260 260

Channel Encoding Channel Encoding

456 bit 456 bit

Interleaving

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

NORMAL BURST
3 57 1 26 1 57 3 8.25
OutSridhar
of firstIyer
20 ms IIT Bombay 150
Out of second 20ms
 Traffic Channel Structure for Full Rate Coding

Slots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2

Bursts for Users allocated in Slot

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 26
T
T T T T T T T T T T T T S T T T T I

T = Traffic
S = Signal( contains information about the signal strength in
neighboring cells)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 151

Slots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2

Burst for one users

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 26
T T T T T T S T T

Bursts for another users allocated

T in alternate Slots
1 2 3 4 5 6 T7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 26
T T T T T T T T S
=
T
Traffic Channel Structure for Half Rate Coding
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 152
 BCCH

 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

– BTS to MS
– Radio channel configuration
– Current cell + Neighbouring cells
– Synchronizing information
– Frequencies + frame numbering
– Registration Identifiers
– LA + Cell Identification (CI) + Base Station Identity Code
(BSIC)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 153

 FCCH & SCH

 Frequency Correction Channel

– Repeated broadcast of FB

 Synchronization Channel
– Repeated broadcast of SB
– Message format of SCH
PLMN color BS color T1 Superframe T2 multiframe T3 block frame
3 bits 3 bits index 11 bits index 11 bits index 3bits
BSIC 6 bits"
FN 19bits

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 154

 RACH & SDCCH

 Random Access Channel (RACH)

– MS to BTS
– Slotted Aloha
– Request for dedicated SDCCH

 Standalone Dedicated Control Channel

(SDCCH)
– MS  BTS
– Standalone; Independent of TCH

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 155

 AGCH & PCH

Access Grant Channel (AGCH)

– BTS to MS
– Assign an SDCCH/TCH to MS

 Paging Channel (PCH)

– BTS to MS
– Page MS

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 156

 SACCH & FACCH
 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
– MS  BTS
– Always associated with either TCH or SDCCH
– Information
– Optimal radio operation; Commands for synchronization
– Transmitter power control; Channel measurement
– Should always be active; as proof of existence of
physical radio connection
 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
– MS  BTS
– Handover
– Pre-emptive multiplexing on a TCH, Stealing Flag (SF)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 157

 Example: Incoming Call Setup
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Paging request (PCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Channel request (RACH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Immediate Assignment (AGCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Paging Response (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Authentication Request (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Authentication Response (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Cipher Mode Command (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Cipher Mode Compl. (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Setup (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Call Confirmation (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Assignment Command (SDCCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Assignment Compl. (FACCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Alert (FACCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Connect (FACCH)
MS  BSS/MSC ------ Connect Acknowledge (FACCH)
MS BSS/MSC ------ Data (TCH)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 158
 Select the channel with
Power On Scan Channels, highest RF level among
monitor RF levels the control channels

Scan the channel for the

FCCH

Select the channel with NO

next highest Rf level from Is
the control list. FCCH detected?
YES

Scan channel for SCH

NO
Is
SCH detected?
YES

Read data from BCCH

and determine is it BCCH?

From the channel data NO Is

update the control channel the current BCCH
list channel included? YES

Camp on BCCH and

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay start decoding 159
 Adaptive Frame Synchronization

 Timing Advance
 Advance in Tx time corresponding to
propagation delay

 6 bit number used; hence 63 steps

 63 bit period = 233 micro seconds (round trip
time)
– 35 Kms

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 160

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 161
 GSM: Channel Mapping Summary
 Logical channels
– Traffic Channels; Control Channels
 Physical Channel
– Time Slot Number; TDMA frame; RF Channel Sequence

 Mapping in frequency
– 124 channels, 200KHz spacing
 Mapping in time
– TDMA Frame, Multi Frame, Super Frame, Channel
– Two kinds of multiframe:
– 26-frame multiframe; usage -Speech and Data
– 51-frame multiframe; usage -Signalling

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 162

 1 Hyper frame = 2048 Super frames =2715648 TDMA frames 3h
( 28 min 53 sec 760 ms)

0 1 2 3 2045 2046 2047

1 Super frame = 1326 TDMA frames (6.12s)

= 51(26 frames) Multi frame

0 12 3 50

1 Super frame = 1326 TDMA frames (6.12s)

= 26(51 frames) Multi frame

0 1 2 3 23 24 25

1(26 frames) Multi frame = 26 TDMA frames (120 ms) 1(51 frames) Multi frame = 51 TDMA frames (3060/13 ms)

T12 T23 I 0 1 49 50
T0 T1 T2 2 3
(SACCH)

1 TDMA frame
= 8 time slots (120/26 or 4.615ms)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 time slot = 156.25 bit duration (15/26 or 0.577 ms)

(1 bit duration = 48/13 or 3.69s)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 163
 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 164

 GSM architecture

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 165

Source: Bettstetter et. al.
 GSM multiple access

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 166

 GSM call routing
1. MSISDN

LA2 ISDN
4. MSRN

BSC
MS
GMSC/
IWF
BTS
2. MSISDN
MSC
3. MSRN
7. TMSI

7. TMSI

EIR
BSC
AUC
HLR
VLR

BTS
LA1 7. TMSI 5. MSRN

BTS
6. TMSI
MS
8. TMSI

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 167

 Options for data transfer

 Two enhancements to GSM for data

– HSCSD - High Speed Circuit Switched Data
– GPRS - General Packet Radio Service
 Both have capacity to use new coding schemes
and to make multislot allocation
 GPRS, being a packet switched service, is
known to be more efficient and flexible for data
transfer purposes
 It delivers circuit and packet-switched services in
one mobile radio network
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 168
 GPRS features

 Radio resources are allocated for only one or a

few packets at a time, so GPRS enables
– many users to share radio resources, and allow
efficient transport of packets
– fast setup/access times
– connectivity to external packet data n/w
– volume-based charging
 GPRS also carries SMS in data channels rather
than signaling channels as in GSM

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 169

 GPRS Architecture

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 170

 GPRS Architecture

 Requires addition of a new class of nodes called

GSNs (GPRS Support Nodes)
– SGSN: Serving GPRS Support Node,
– GGSN: Gateway GPRS Support Node
 BSC requires a PCU (Packet Control Unit) and
various other elements of the GSM n/w require
software upgrades
 All GSNs are connected via an IP-based
backbone. Protocol data units (PDUs) are
encapsulated and tunneled between GSNs

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 171

 GGSN

 Serves as the interface to external IP networks

which see the GGSN as an IP router serving all
IP addresses of the MSs
 GGSN stores current SGSN address and profile
of the user in its location register
 It tunnels protocol data packets to and from the
SGSN currently serving the MS
 It also performs authentication and charging
 GGSN can also include firewall and packet-
filtering mechanisms

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 172

 SGSN

 Analog of the MSC in GSM

 Routes incoming and outgoing packets
addressed to and from any GPRS subscriber
located within the geographical area served by
the SGSN
 Location Register of the SGSN stores
information (e.g. current cell and VLR) and user
profiles (e.g. IMSI, addresses) of all GPRS
users registered with this SGSN

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 173

 BSC and others

 BSC must get a Packet Control Unit to

– set up, supervise and disconnect packet-switched
calls
– also support cell change, radio resource
configuration and channel assignment
 MSC/VLR, HLR and SMS Center must be
enhanced for interworking with GPRS
 MS must be equipped with the GPRS protocol
stack

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 174

 HLR - Home Location Register

 Shared database, with GSM

 Is enhanced with GPRS subscriber data and
routing information
 For all users registered with the network, HLR
keeps user profile, current SGSN and Packet
Data Protocol (PDP) address(es) information
 SGSN exchanges information with HLR e.g.,
informs HLR of the current location of the MS
 When MS registers with a new SGSN, the HLR
sends the user profile to the new SGSN

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 175

 MSC/VLR-Visitor Location Register

 VLR is responsible for a group of location areas.

It stores data of only those users in its area of
responsibility
 MSC/VLR can be enhanced with functions and
register entries that allow efficient coordination
between GPRS and GSM services
– combined location updates
– combined attachment procedures

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 176

 GPRS Transmission Plane

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 177

 Air Interface Um

 Is one of the central aspects of GPRS

– Concerned with communication between MS and
BSS at the physical, MAC and RLC layers
– Physical channel dedicated to packet data traffic is
called a packet data channel (PDCH)
 Capacity on Demand:
– Allocation/Deallocation of PDCH to GPRS traffic is
dynamic
– BSC controls resources in both directions
– No conflicts on downlink
– Conflicts in uplink are resolved using slotted ALOHA

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 178

 Data transfer between MS and SGSN
 SNDCP transforms IP/X.25 packets into LLC frames,
after optional header/data compression, segmentation
and encryption
 Maximum LLC frame size is 1600 bytes
 An LLC frame is segmented into RLC data blocks which
are coded into radio blocks
 Each radio block comprises four normal bursts (114 bits)
in consecutive TDMA frames
 RLC is responsible for transmission of data across air-
interface, including error correction
 MAC layer performs medium allocation to requests,
including multi-slot allocation
 PHY layer is identical to GSM
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 179
 Data transfer between GSNs

 Although the GPRS network consists of several

different nodes, it represents only one IP hop
 GTP enables tunneling of PDUs between
GSNs, by adding routing information
 Below GTP, TCP/IP and IP are used as the
GPRS backbone protocols

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 180

 MS - state model

 In Idle State MS is not

reachable
 With GPRS Attach MS
moves into ready state
 With Detach, it returns to
Idle state: all PDP
contexts are deleted
 Standby state is reached
when MS does not send
data for a long period
and ready timer expires

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 181

 GPRS – PDP context

 MS gets a packet temporary mobile subscriber identity

(p-TMSI) during Attach
 MS requests for one or more addresses used in the
packet data network, e.g. IP address
 GGSN creates a PDP context for each session
– PDP type (IPV4), PDP address (IP) of MS,
– requested quality of service (QoS) and address of GGSN
 PDP context is stored in MS, SGSN and GGSN
 Mapping between the two addresses, enables GGSN to
transfer packets between MS and the PDN

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 182

 GPRS - Routing

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 183

 GPRS - Routing

 MS from PLMN-2 is visiting PLMN-1.

 IP address prefix of MS is the same as GGSN-2
 Incoming packets to MS are routed to GGSN-2
 GGSN-2 queries HLR and finds that MS is
currently in PLMN-1
 It encapsulates the IP packets and tunnels them
through the GPRS backbone to the appropriate
SGSN of PLMN-1
 SGSN decapsulates and delivers to the MS

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 184

 GPRS Summary

 Enables many users to share radio resources

by dynamic, on-demand, multi-slot allocation
 Provides connectivity to external packet data
networks
 Modification to the GSM air-interface
 Addition of new GPRS Support Nodes
 Assignment of PDP context to MS
 Enables volume-based charging as well as
duration based charging

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 185

 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 186

 Variability of the mobile environment

Mobility
• stationary
• nomadic (pedestrian speed)
• mobile (vehicular speed)
• roaming (mobile across networks)

Connectivity
• connected
Mobile Device Capability • semi-connected
• form factor (asymmetric)
• GUI • disconnected
• multimedia
• real-time multimedia

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 187

 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
 HTTP/HTML have not been designed for
mobile devices and applications

 WAP empowers mobile users with wireless

devices to easily access and interact with
information and services.

 A “standard” created by wireless and Internet

companies to enable Internet access from a
cellular phone
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 188
 Why is HTTP/HTML not enough?

Big pipe - small pipe syndrome

Internet Wireless network
<HTML> HTTP/HTML <WML>
<CARD> WAP
<HEAD>
<TITLE>NNN Interactive</TITLE> <DO TYPE="ACCEPT">
<META HTTP-EQUIV="Refresh" CONTENT="1800, <GO URL="/submit?Name=$N"/>
URL=/index.html"> </DO>
</HEAD> Enter name:
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" KEY="N"/>
BACKGROUND="/images/9607/bgbar5.gif" LINK="#0A3990" </CARD>
ALINK="#FF0000" VLINK="#FF0000" TEXT="000000" </WML>
ONLOAD="if(parent.frames.length!
=0)top.location='http://nnn.com';">
<A NAME="#top"></A>
<TABLE WIDTH=599 BORDER="0">
<TR ALIGN=LEFT>
<TD WIDTH=117 VALIGN=TOP ALIGN=LEFT>
Content encoding
<HTML> 010011
<HEAD> 010011
<TITLE 110110
>NNN 010011
Intera 011011
ctive< 011101
/TITLE 010010
> 011010
<META
HTTP-
EQUIV=
"Refre
sh"
CONTEN
T="180
0,
URL=/i
ndex.h
Sridhar Iyer tml"> IIT Bombay 189
Source: WAP Forum
 WHY WAP?

 Wireless networks and phones

– have specific needs and requirements
– not addressed by existing Internet technologies
 WAP
– Enables any data transport
• TCP/IP, UDP/IP, GUTS (IS-135/6), SMS, or USSD.
– Optimizes the content and air-link protocols
– Utilizes plain Web HTTP 1.1 servers
• utilizes standard Internet markup language technology (XML)
• all WML content is accessed via HTTP 1.1 requests
– WML UI components map well onto existing mobile phone UI
• no re-education of the end-users
• leveraging market penetration of mobile devices

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 190

 WAP: main features
 Browser
– “Micro browser”, similar to existing web browsers
 Markup language
– Similar to HTML, adapted to mobile devices
 Script language
– Similar to Javascript, adapted to mobile devices
 Gateway
– Transition from wireless to wired world
 Server
– “Wap/Origin server”, similar to existing web servers
 Protocol layers
– Transport layer, security layer, session layer etc.
 Telephony application interface
– Access to telephony functions
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 191
 Internet model

HTML
HTTP
TLS/SSL
TCP/IP

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 192

 WAP architecture

Client Web Server

WAP Gateway
WML

with WML-Script
WML Encoder CGI

WML Decks
WML- Scripts
WSP/WTP WMLScript HTTP etc.
Script
Compiler
WTAI
Protocol Adapters Content
Etc.

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 193

Source: WAP Forum
 WAP application server

Client WAP Application Server

WML

with WML-Script
WML Encoder
Application

WML Decks
WML- WMLScript Logic
WSP/WTP
Script Compiler
WTAI Protocol Adapters Content
Etc.

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 194

Source: WAP Forum
 WAP specifies

 Wireless Application Environment

– WML Microbrowser
– WMLScript Virtual Machine
– WMLScript Standard Library
– Wireless Telephony Application Interface (WTAI)
– WAP content types

 Wireless Protocol Stack

– Wireless Session Protocol (WSP)
– Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)
– Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP)
– Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP)
– Wireless network interface definitions
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 195
 WAP stack

 WAE (Wireless Application Environment):

– Architecture: application model, browser, gateway,
server
– WML: XML-Syntax, based on card stacks,
variables, ...
– WTA: telephone services, such as call control,
phone book etc.
 WSP (Wireless Session Protocol):
– Provides HTTP 1.1 functionality
– Supports session management, security, etc.

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 196

 WAP stack (contd.)

 WTP (Wireless Transaction Protocol):

– Provides reliable message transfer mechanisms
– Based on ideas from TCP/RPC
 WTLS (Wireless Transport Layer Security):
– Provides data integrity, privacy, authentication functions
– Based on ideas from TLS/SSL
 WDP (Wireless Datagram Protocol):
– Provides transport layer functions
– Based on ideas from UDP

Content encoding, optimized for low-bandwidth channels,

simple devices

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 197

 WDP: Wireless Datagram Protocol
 Goals
– create a worldwide interoperable transport system by
adapting WDP to the different underlying technologies
– transmission services, such as SMS in GSM might change,
new services can replace the old ones
 WDP
– Transport layer protocol within the WAP architecture
– uses the Service Primitive
• T-UnitData.req .ind
– uses transport mechanisms of different bearer technologies
– offers a common interface for higher layer protocols
– allows for transparent communication despite different
technologies
– addressing uses port numbers
– WDP over IP is UDP/IP
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 198
 WDP: service primitives

T-SAP T-SAP
T-DUnitdata.req
(DA, DP, SA, SP, UD) T-DUnitdata.ind
(SA, SP, UD)
T-DUnitdata.req
(DA, DP, SA, SP, UD)
T-DError.ind
SAP: Service Access Point
(EC)
DA: Destination Address
DP: Destination Port
SA: Source Address
SP: Source Port
UD: User Data
EC: Error Code

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 199

Source: Schiller
 Service, Protocol, Bearer: Example

WAP Over GSM Circuit-Switched

WAP
Mobile
Proxy/Server

WAE WAE Apps on

Other Servers
WSP WSP
IWF ISP/RAS
WTP WTP
UDP UDP
IP IP IP

PPP PPP

CSD-RF CSD- PSTN PSTN Subnetwork Subnetwork

RF Circuit Circuit

RAS - Remote Access Server

IWF - InterWorking Function
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 200
Source: WAP Forum
 Service, Protocol, Bearer: Example
WAP Over GSM Short Message Service
WAP
Mobile Proxy/Server
WAE WAE Apps on
other servers
WSP WSP

WTP SMSC WTP

WDP WDP

SMS SMS WDP Tunnel WDP Tunnel

Protocol Protocol
Subnetwork Subnetwork

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 201

Source: WAP Forum
 WTLS:Wireless Transport Layer Security
 Goals
– Provide mechanisms for secure transfer of content, for
applications needing privacy, identification, message integrity
and non-repudiation
 WTLS
– is based on the TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security) protocol
– optimized for low-bandwidth communication channels
– provides
• privacy (encryption)
• data integrity (MACs)
• authentication (public-key and symmetric)
– Employs special adapted mechanisms for wireless usage
• Long lived secure sessions
• Optimised handshake procedures
• Provides simple data reliability for operation over datagram
bearers

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 202

 WTLS: secure session, full handshake
originator peer
SEC-SAP SEC-SAP
SEC-Create.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, KES, CS, CM)
SEC-Create.ind
(SA, SP, DA, DP, KES, CS, CM)
SEC-Create.res
(SNM, KR, SID, KES‘, CS‘, CM‘)
SEC-Create.cnf SEC-Exchange.req
(SNM, KR, SID, KES‘, CS‘, CM‘) KES: Key Exchange Suite
SEC-Exchange.ind
CS: Cipher Suite
SEC-Exchange.res CM: Compression Mode
(CC)
SEC-Commit.req SNM: Sequence Number Mode
SEC-Exchange.cnf
(CC)
SEC-Commit.ind
SEC-Commit.cnf KR: Key Refresh Cycle
SID: Session Identifier
CC: Client Certificate
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 203
Source: Schiller
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
 Goals
– different transaction services that enable applications to
select reliability, efficiency levels
– low memory requirements, suited to simple devices (<
10kbyte )
– efficiency for wireless transmission
 WTP
– supports peer-to-peer, client/server and multicast
applications
– efficient for wireless transmission
– support for different communication scenarios

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 204

 WTP transactions
 class 0: unreliable message transfer
– unconfirmed Invoke message with no Result message
– a datagram that can be sent within the context of an existing
Session
 class 1: reliable message transfer without result
message
– confirmed Invoke message with no Result message
– used for data push, where no response from the destination is
expected
 class 2: reliable message transfer with exactly one
reliable result message
– confirmed Invoke message with one confirmed Result message
– a single request produces a single reply

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 205

 WTP: services and protocols
 WTP (Transaction)
– provides reliable data transfer based on request/reply
paradigm
• no explicit connection setup or tear down
• optimized setup (data carried in first packet of protocol
exchange)
• seeks to reduce 3-way handshake on initial request
– supports
• header compression
• segmentation /re-assembly
• retransmission of lost packets
• selective-retransmission
• port number addressing (UDP ports numbers)
• flow control
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 206
 WTP services

 message oriented (not stream)

 supports an Abort function for outstanding
requests
 supports concatenation of PDUs

 supports two acknowledgement options

– User acknowledgement
– acks may be forced from the WTP user (upper layer)
– Stack acknowledgement: default

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 207

 WTP Class 0 Transaction

initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=0, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
P DU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=0, H‘)

A: Acknowledgement Type
(WTP/User)
C: Class (0,1,2)
H: Handle (socket alias)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 208

Source: Schiller
 WTP Class 1 Transaction,
no user ack &responder
initiator
user ack
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
P DU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf U
(H) Ack PD

initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
P DU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H‘)
TR-Invoke.res
(H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf U
(H) Ack PD

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 209

Source: Schiller
 WTP Class 2 Transaction,
no user ack, no hold on
initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
P DU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H‘)
TR-Result.req
(UD*, H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf PDU
(H) Result

TR-Result.ind
(UD*, H)
TR-Result.res
(H)
Ack PD TR-Result.cnf
U
(H‘)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 210

Source: Schiller
 WTP Class 2 Transaction, user ack
initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
P DU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H‘)
TR-Invoke.res
(H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf U
(H) Ack PD TR-Result.req
(UD*, H‘)
TR-Result.ind PDU
(UD*, H) Result

TR-Result.res
(H)
Ack PD TR-Result.cnf
U
(H‘)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 211

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
 Goals
– HTTP 1.1 functionality
• Request/reply, content type negotiation, ...
– support of client/server transactions, push technology
– key management, authentication, Internet security services

 WSP Services
– provides shared state between client and server, optimizes
content transfer
– session management (establish, release, suspend, resume)
– efficient capability negotiation
– content encoding
– Push

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 212

 WSP overview
 Header Encoding
– compact binary encoding of headers, content type identifiers
and other well-known textual or structured values
– reduces the data actually sent over the network
 Capabilities (are defined for):
– message size, client and server
– protocol options: Confirmed Push Facility, Push Facility,
Session Suspend Facility, Acknowledgement headers
– maximum outstanding requests
– extended methods
 Suspend and Resume
– server knows when client can accept a push
– multi-bearer devices
– dynamic addressing
– allows the release of underlying bearer resources
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 213
 WSP/B session establishment
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-Connect.req
(SA, CA, CH, RC) Conne S-Connect.ind
ct P DU
(SA, CA, CH, RC)
S-Connect.res
(SH, NC)
S-Connect.cnf DU
on nReply P
(SH, NC) C

CH: Client Header

WTP Class 2
RC: Requested Capabilities
transaction
SH: Server Header
NC: Negotiated Capabilities

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 214

Source: Schiller
 WSP/B session suspend/resume
client server
S-SAP S-SAP

S-Suspend.req Suspe S-Suspend.ind

nd PD
U (R)
S-Suspend.ind
(R) WTP Class 0
transaction
R: Reason for disconnection
S-Resume.req
(SA, CA)
~ ~
Resum S-Resume.ind
eP DU
(SA, CA)
S-Resume.res
PDU
S-Resume.cnf Reply

WTP Class 2
transaction

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 215

Source: Schiller
 WSP/B session termination

client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-Disconnect.req
(R) Discon S-Disconnect.ind
nect P
S-Disconnect.ind DU (R)
(R) WTP Class 0
transaction

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 216

Source: Schiller
 confirmed/non-confirmed push
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-Push.req
(PH, PB)
S-Push.ind DU
(PH, PB) Push P

WTP Class 0 PH: Push Header

transaction PB: Push Body
SPID: Server Push ID
client server CPID: Client Push ID
S-SAP S-SAP
S-ConfirmedPush.req
(SPID, PH, PB)
S-ConfirmedPush.ind PD U
ush
(CPID, PH, PB) ConfP

S-ConfirmedPush.res
(CPID) S-ConfirmedPush.cnf
(SPID)
WTP Class 1
transaction

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 217

Source: Schiller
 WAP Stack Summary
 WDP
– functionality similar to UDP in IP networks
 WTLS
– functionality similar to SSL/TLS (optimized for wireless)
 WTP
– Class 0: analogous to UDP
– Class 1: analogous to TCP (without connection setup overheads)
– Class 2: analogous to RPC (optimized for wireless)
– features of “user acknowledgement”, “hold on”
 WSP
– WSP/B: analogous to http 1.1 (add features of suspend/resume)
– method: analogous to RPC/RMI
– features of asynchronous invocations, push (confirmed/unconfirmed)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 218
 Wireless Application Environment
(WAE)

 Goals
– device and network independent application
environment
– for low-bandwidth, wireless devices
– considerations of slow links, limited memory, low
computing power, small display, simple user interface
(compared to desktops)
– integrated Internet/WWW programming model
– high interoperability

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 219

 WAE components
 Architecture
– Application model, Microbrowser, Gateway, Server
 User Agents
– WML/WTA/Others
– content formats: vCard, vCalendar, Wireless Bitmap, WML..
 WML
– XML-Syntax, based on card stacks, variables, ...
 WMLScript
– procedural, loops, conditions, ... (similar to JavaScript)
 WTA
– telephone services, such as call control, text messages,
phone book, ... (accessible from WML/WMLScript)
 Proxy (Method/Push)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 220
 WAE: logical model
Origin Servers Gateway Client

response encoded WTA

web Method proxy
with response user agent
server
content with
content

Push proxy WML

other content
user agent
server push encoded
content push
content
encoders other
& WAE
decoders user agents
request encoded
request

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 221

 WAP microbrowser

 Optimized for wireless devices

 Minimal RAM, ROM, Display, CPU and
keys
 Provides consistent service UI across
devices
 Provides Internet compatibility
 Enables wide array of available content and
applications

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 222

 WML: Wireless Markup Language

 Tag-based browsing
language:
Content (XML)
– Screen management (text,
images)
– Data input (text, selection
lists, etc.) XSL Processor
– Hyperlinks & navigation WML Stylesheet HTML StyleSheet
support
WML Browsers HTTP Browser
 Takes into account
limited display,
navigation capabilities of
devices

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 223

 WML
 XML-based language
– describes only intent of interaction in an abstract
manner
– presentation depends upon device capabilities
 Cards and Decks
– document consists of many cards
– User interactions are split into cards
– Explicit navigation between cards
– cards are grouped to decks
– deck is similar to HTML page, unit of content
transmission
 Events, variables and state mgmt
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 224
 WML
 The basic unit is a card. Cards are grouped together into Decks Document ~ Deck (unit of
transfer)
 All decks must contain
– Document prologue
• XML & document type declaration
– <WML> element
• Must contain one or more cards

WML File Structure

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<!DOCTYPE WML PUBLIC "-//WAPFORUM//DTD WML 1.0//EN"
"http://www.wapforum.org/DTD/wml.xml">

<WML>
...
</WML>

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 225

 WML cards
<WML>
<CARD>
<DO TYPE=“ACCEPT”>
Navigation <GO URL=“#eCard”/>
Card
</DO
Welcome!
</CARD>
<CARD NAME=“eCard”>
<DO TYPE=“ACCEPT”>
Variables <GO URL=“/submit?N=$(N)&S=$ Deck
(S)”/>
</DO>
Enter name: <INPUT KEY=“N”/>
Choose speed:
Input <SELECT KEY=“S”>
Elements <OPTION VALUE=“0”>Fast</OPTION>
<OPTION VALUE=“1”>Slow</OPTION>
<SELECT>
Sridhar Iyer </CARD> IIT Bombay 226
</WML>
 Wireless Telephony Application
(WTA)
 Collection of telephony specific extensions
– designed primarily for network operators

 Example
– calling a number (WML)
wtai://wp/mc;07216086415
– calling a number (WMLScript)
WTAPublic.makeCall("07216086415");

 Implementation
– Extension of basic WAE application model
– Extensions added to standard WML/WMLScript browser
– Exposes additional API (WTAI)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 227

 WTA features

 Extension of basic WAE application model

– network model for interaction
• client requests to server
• event signaling: server can push content to the client
– event handling
• table indicating how to react on certain events from the
network
• client may now be able to handle unknown events
– telephony functions
• some application on the client may access telephony
functions

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 228

 WTA Interface
 generic, high-level interface to mobile’s
telephony functions
– setting up calls, reading and writing entries in
phonebook
 WTA API includes
– Call control
– Network text messaging
– Phone book interface
– Event processing
 Security model: segregation
– Separate WTA browser
– Separate WTA port
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 229
 WTA Example (WML)

Placing an outgoing call with WTAI:

<WML>
<CARD>
<DO TYPE=“ACCEPT”>
WTAI Call <GO URL=“wtai:cc/mc;$(N)”/>
</DO>
Input Element Enter phone number:
<INPUT TYPE=“TEXT” KEY=“N”/>
</CARD>
</WML>

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 230

Source: WAP Forum
 WTA Logical Architecture
other telephone networks
WTA Origin Server
Client
WML
Scripts mobile WTA
WTA & WML network user agent
server
WML
decks WAE
WAP Gateway services
WTA
services
encoders
&
network operator decoders
trusted domain other WTA
servers

third party
firewall
origin servers

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 231

Source: Schiller
 WTA Framework Components

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 232

Source: Heijden
 WTA User Agent

 WTA User Agent

– WML User agent with extended functionality
– can access mobile device’s telephony functions
through WTAI
– can store WTA service content persistently in a
repository
– handles events originating in the mobile network

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 233

 WTA User Agent Context

 Abstraction of execution space

 Holds current parameters, navigation history,
state of user agent
 Similar to activation record in a process
address space

 Uses connection-mode and connectionless

services offered by WSP
 Specific, secure WDP ports on the WAP
gateway
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 234
 WTA Events

 Network notifies device of event (such as

incoming call)
 WTA events map to device’s native events
 WTA services are aware of and able to act on
these events

 example: incoming call indication, call cleared,

call connected

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 235

 WTA Repository

 local store for content related to WTA services

(minimize network traffic)
 Channels: define the service
– content format defining a WTA service stored in repository
– XML document specifying eventid, title, abstract, and
resources that implement a service
 Resources: execution scripts for a service
– could be WML decks, WML Scripts, WBMP images..
– downloaded from WTA server and stored in repository
before service is referenced
 Server can also initiate download of a channel

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 236

 WTA Channels and Resources

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 237

Source: Heijden
 WTA Interface (public)
 for third party WML content providers
 restricted set of telephony functions available to
any WAE User Agent
– library functions
• make call: allows application to setup call to a valid tel
number
• send DTMF tones: send DTMF tones through the setup call
 user notified to grant permission for service
execution
– cannot be triggered by network events
– example: Yellow pages service with “make call”
feature

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 238

 WTA Interface (network)
 Network Common WTAI
– WTA service provider is in operator’s domain
– all WTAI features are accessible, including the
interface to WTA events
– library functions
• Voice-call control: setup call, accept, release, send DTMF
tones
• Network text: send text, read text, remove text (SMS)
• Phonebook: write, read, remove phonebook entry
• Call logs: last dialed numbers, missed calls, received calls
• Miscellaneous: terminate WTA user agent, protect context
– user can give blanket permission to invoke a function
– example: Voice mail service
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 239
 WTAI (network)

 Network Specific WTAI

– specific to type of bearer network

– example: GSM: call reject, call hold, call transfer, join

multiparty, send USSD

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 240

 WTA: event handling

 Event occurrence
– WTA user agent could be executing and expecting
the event
– WTA user agent could be executing and a
different event occurs
– No service is executing
 Event handling
– channel for each event defines the content to be
processed upon reception of that event

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 241

 WTA: event binding

 association of an event with the corresponding handler

(channel)
 Global binding:
– channel corresponding to the event is stored in the repository
– event causes execution of resources defined by the channel
– example: voice mail service
 Temporary binding:
– resources to be executed are defined by the already executing
service
– example: yellow pages lookup and call establishment

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 242

 Event Handling (no service in
execution)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 243

Source: Heijden
 Event Handling (service already
execution)

1: Temporary binding exists

2. No temporary binding and context is protected
3: No temporary binding IIT
Sridhar Iyer
and context is not protected
Bombay 244
Source: Heijden
 WAP Push Services
 Web push
– Scheduled pull by client (browser)
• example: Active Channels
– no real-time alerting/response
• example: stock quotes
 Wireless push
– accomplished by using the network itself
• example: SMS
– limited to simple text, cannot be used as starting point for service
• example: if SMS contains news, user cannot request specific news
item
 WAP push
– Network supported push of WML content
• example: Alerts or service indications
– Pre-caching of data (channels/resources)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 245
 WAP push framework

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 246

Source: Heijden
 Push Access Protocol

 Based on request/response model

 Push initiator is the client
 Push proxy is the server
 Initiator uses HTTP POST to send push message to
proxy
 Initiator sends control information as an XML
document, and content for mobile (as WML)
 Proxy sends XML entity in response indicating
submission status
 Initiator can
– cancel previous push
– query status of push
– query status/capabilities of device
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 247
 Push Proxy Gateway

 WAP stack (communication with mobile device)

 TCP/IP stack (communication with Internet push
initiator)
 Proxy layer does
– control information parsing
– content transformation
– session management
– client capabilities
– store and forward
– prioritization
– address resolution
– management function

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 248

 Over the Air (OTA) Protocol

 Extends WSP with push-specific functionality

 Application ID uniquely identifies a particular application
in the client (referenced as a URI)
 Connection-oriented mode
– client informs proxy of application IDs in a session
 Connectionless mode
– well known ports, one for secure and other for non-secure push
 Session Initiation Application (SIA)
– unconfirmed push from proxy to client
– request to create a session for a specific user agent and bearer

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 249

 WAE Summary
 WML and WML Script
– analogous to HTML and JavaScript (optimized for wireless)
– microbrowser user agent; compiler in the network
 WTA
– WTAI: different access rights for different applications/agents
– WTA User Agent (analogy with operating systems)
• Context – Activation Record
• Channel – Interrupt Handler
• Resource – Shared routines invoked by interrupt handlers
• Repository – Library of interrupt handlers
– feature of dynamically pushing the interrupt handler before
the event
 Push
– no analogy in Internet
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 250
 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 251

 Structuring Distributed Applications
Call to server procedure
Client Server Data
results
Procedure

Client Server
Procedure

Client Server Data

results

Remote Evaluation

Client Server Data

Procedure

Sridhar Iyer Code onIITDemand

Bombay 252
 Procedure
+
State
Client Server Data

Procedure
+
State
Procedure
+ Server Data
State

Procedure
+
State
Procedure
+
State Server Data
Server Data

Mobile Agents
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 253
 Interaction Model

Request

Client Server

Response
Client/server communication

Mobile agent

Request

Client Server
Response

Mobile agent communication

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 254
 A generic Mobile Agent Framework
•Event notification

•Agent collaboration support

Event Manager
•Execution •User identification
environment
Mobile Agent
•Protection
•Communication
(agent, server)
(agent dispatching)
•Authentication
•Agent life cycle
(creation, destruction)

Agent Manager •Agent state Security Manager

•Agent checkpoint
(fault tolerance)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 255
Persistent Manager
 Example: Student Examination Scenario
= Paper Setter Nodes
Comprehensive Question Paper = Install Agent
= Fetch Agent

3
Paper Assembler 1
2 Cloning

Partial Question
Paper
Sridhar Iyer
To Distribution Center IIT Bombay 256
 Dynamic Upgrade

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 257

 Example: Distribution and Testing
List of Students enrolled
Single copy of paper …
Distribution 1 2 …
Exam Center
Server Distribution
Server
5
c9611060
Each copy returned

Separate Copy per user

4
Answered and Returned 3
Each Candidate get a Copy

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 258

 Example: Evaluation and Results

Objective Questions Evaluator

c9611060

Examiner B

Distributor
Distribution Server

Examiner A Examiner C

Examiner D
Results
…
…
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 259
Agents collaborate to produce the final result
 Mobile Agents Summary
 Appears to be a useful mechanism for
applications on mobile and wireless devices
– Reduce the network load
– Help in overcoming latency
– Execute asynchronously and autonomously

 Several issues yet to be addressed

– Heavy frameworks
– Interoperability
– Security concerns

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 260

 Outline
 Introduction and Overview
 Wireless LANs: IEEE 802.11
 Mobile IP routing
 TCP over wireless
 GSM air interface
 GPRS network architecture
 Wireless application protocol
 Mobile agents
 Mobile ad hoc networks

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 261

 Multi-Hop Wireless

 May need to traverse multiple links to reach destination

 Mobility causes route changes

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 262

 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
 Host movement frequent
 Topology change frequent

A B
B A

 No cellular infrastructure. Multi-hop wireless links.

 Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 263

 Many Applications
 Ad hoc networks:
– Do not need backbone infrastructure support
– Are easy to deploy
– Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or impractical
– Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area or war zone
 Applications:
– Military environments
– Emergency operations
– Civilian environments
• taxi cab network
• meeting rooms
• sports stadiums

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 264

 MAC in Ad hoc Networks

 IEEE 802.11 DCF is most popular

– Easy availability
 802.11 DCF:
– Uses RTS-CTS to avoid hidden terminal problem
– Uses ACK to achieve reliability

 802.11 was designed for single-hop wireless

– Does not do well for multi-hop ad hoc scenarios
– Reduced throughput
– Exposed terminal problem

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 265

 Exposed Terminal Problem

A B
D
C

– A starts sending to B.
– C senses carrier, finds medium in use and has to
wait for A->B to end.
– D is outside the range of A, therefore waiting is not
necessary.
– A and C are “exposed” terminals
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 266
 Routing Protocols
 Proactive protocols
– Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
– Maintain routes between every host pair at all times
– Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead
– Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)

 Reactive protocols
– Determine route if and when needed
– Source initiates route discovery
– Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)

 Hybrid protocols
– Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
– Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 267
 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
 Route Discovery Phase:
– Initiated by source node S that wants to send packet to
destination node D
– Route Request (RREQ) floods through the network
– Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ
 Route Reply Phase:
– D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP)
– RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route
appended to received RREQ
– RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was
received by node D
 Data Forwarding Phase:
– S sends data to D by source routing through intermediate nodes

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 268

 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 269

 Route Discovery in DSR
Y
Broadcast transmission

[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

[X,Y]
Sridhar Iyer Represents list ofIIT
identifiers
Bombay appended to RREQ 270
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 271
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 272

 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions
Sridhar Iyer may collide
IIT Bombay 273
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 274
 Route Reply in DSR
Y

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 275
 Data Delivery in DSR
Y

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 276
 TCP in MANET
Several factors affect TCP in MANET:

 Wireless transmission errors

– reducing congestion window in response to errors
is unnecessary
 Multi-hop routes on shared wireless medium
– Longer connections are at a disadvantage
compared to shorter connections, because they
have to contend for wireless access at each hop
 Route failures due to mobility

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 277

 MANET Summary
 Routing is the most studied problem
 Interplay of layers is being researched

 Large number of simulation based expts

 Small number of field trials
 Very few reported deployments

 Fertile area for imaginative applications

– Standardizing protocols does not seem to be a
very good idea
– Scope for proprietary solutions with limited interop
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 278
 References
 J. Schiller, “Mobile Communications”, Addison Wesley, 2000
 802.11 Wireless LAN, IEEE standards, www.ieee.org
 Mobile IP, RFC 2002, RFC 334, www.ietf.org
 TCP over wireless, RFC 3150, RFC 3155, RFC 3449
 A. Mehrotra, “GSM system engineering”, Artech House, 1997
 Bettstetter, Vogel and Eberspacher, “GPRS: Architecture, Protocols
and Air Interface”, IEEE Communications Survey 1999, 3(3).
 M.v.d. Heijden, M. Taylor. “Understanding WAP”, Artech House, 2000
 Mobile Ad hoc networks, RFC 2501

 Others websites:
– www.palowireless.com
– www.gsmworld.com; www.wapforum.org
– www.etsi.org; www.3gtoday.com
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 279
 Thank You

Other Tutorials at: www.it.iitb.ac.in/~sri

Contact Details:
Sridhar Iyer
School of Information Technology
IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076
Phone: +91-22-2576-7901
Email: [email protected]
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 280