Digestive System

Digestion is the break down of large food molecules(Insoluble and complex) into
smaller/soluble/simpler substances that can be absobsed and utilised by the body.
Types of Digestion
Mechanical digestion: This is chewing(mastication) and breaking down of large food substances to make
it easier to swallow. The churning process carried out by stomach is also part of mechanical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: Enzymes are secreted on the food as it passes through the alimentary canal to
catalyse the break down from polymers to monomers. This is called chemical digestion
Differences between Ingestion/ Egestion/ Digestion/Secretion
Ingestion: is simply the taking in of food substances
Egestion : is the passing out of faecal material out of the body(Deafication)
Digestion: Is the breaking down of food substances into simpler form
Secretion: Is the release of useful substances by special cells and organs into the body
Structure Of Digestive System
The Mouth: Digestion begins in the mouth. The food is chewed and broken down to smaller
particles(Mechanical Digestion) The food is chewed to increase the surface area for enzyme reaction.
The tongue roll the food and mixes it with saliva(Chemical Digestion) turning it to bolus(a semi-digested
food). The enzyme found in the mouth is ptyalin or Amylase which works best in slightly alkaline
medium (pH 7.6)
Note: Digestion of carbohydrate (cooked starch) begins in the mouth
Cooked Starch Maltose
Ptyalin
Structure of Digestive system
The Oesophagus: Is a long muscular wall/tube that contracts and relaxes when food is
taken in( Peristalsis movement). The food is pushed down into the stomach via this
long tube.
The Stomach: Is a sack-like material, flexible and also muscular. The stomach carries
out mechanical digestion through churning movement. The food is further broken
down into tiny particles. The stomach contains a gland called Gastrin which secretes
gastric juice. This gastric juice contains two important proteases: Rennin and Pepsin
which are involved in chemical digestion
i. Caseinogen (soluble milk) curdling of milk casein( Insoluble milk)
Rennin
II. Protein Polypeptides/ peptones
Pepsin
The gastrin also secretes Hydrochloric acid in the stomach that lowers the pH to 2
(Acidic environment). The acid in the stomach:
i. Creates optimum pH for enzyme to function
ii. Neutralises the alkalinity of the food as it comes from the mouth
iii. Kills germs that enter alongside the food.
The stomach secretes mucus which protects the wall of the stomach from the effects
of the HCL. The food leaves the stomach as chyme(watery substances) after
several hours of stay depending on the type of food.
Small intestine
The parts of the small intestine include:
i. The duodenum
ii. The Jejunum
iii. The ileum
The food leaves the stomach as acidic chyme and enters the duodenum
i. The duodenum: the duodenum is connected to two important organs
a. The gall bladder: The gall bladder releases it secretion called Bile into the duodenum. The bile is produced by the liver and stored in the
gall bladder.
Functions of bile
I. The bile neutralizes the acidic chyme and raises the pH to 8.2 making the food alkaline for the enzyme to function effectively
ii. The bile also emulsifies fat. Emulsification is the process of breaking down the fat into smaller lipid components which makes it easy
for enzymes to function and digest food.

Large Fat and oil globlet Emulsificatiion Small fat and oil globlet
Bile
b. The pancreas: The pancreas also releases its secretion called pancreatic juice into the duodenum. The juice contains digestive enzyme
such as Trypsin, Lipase and Amylase

Protein Trypsin Polypeptide

Lipase
Fat and Oil Fatty acid and glycerol
Amylase
Cooked Starch Maltose

The food leaves the duodenum as chyle (A watery alkaline liquid)

b. The jejunum and Ileum
The chyle passes through the jejunum to the ileum where a digestive
enzyme is secreted by the mucosal lining of the ileum. This secretion
contains enzymes like Erepsin, Sucrase, Maltase, Lactase and Lipase.

i. Polypetide/peptone Erepsin Amino acid

ii. Sucrose Sucrase Glucose + Fructose
iii. Lactose Lactase Glucose + Galactose
iv. Maltose Maltase Glucose + Glucose
Fat and Oil Lipase Fatty acid + Glycerol
In summary, the digestion of protein gives amino acid, carbohydrate gives
glucose and fat and oil gives fatty acid and glycerol
Absorption takes place immediately after digestion in the ileum.
 The Villi
The walls of the small intestine have folds and furrows, is one cell thick and
Finger- like projections known as villi. The villi serve to increase the surface
area for absorption of digested food by diffusion and active transport. Each villi is lined with
other finger like projections called the micro villi.

The amino acids, vitamins, minerals, little quantity of fatty acids and glucose are absorbed into
the blood capillaries from where they are carried to the liver
acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteal so they can be transported to the lymphatic
system.
 The Large Intestine
Large intestine: is divided into two regions; colon and rectum. The
colon is larger in diameter than the small intestine and has the function
of absorbing water from undigested material making it semi solid in
appearance. The semi solid material is known as faeces which are
passed out through the rectum
 Dentition
Dentition is the number, arrangement and type of teeth present in the mouth. There are two types of
dentition namely;
Homodont: dentition with uniform shape and size of teeth which performs the same function. This type of
dentition is seen in amphibians, reptiles and fishes.
Heterodont: dentition with different shapes and sizes of teeth which
perform different functions. This type of dentition is seen in mammals. Types of mammalian teeth:
Development of the two sets of human dentition
Milk dentition
These are found in the young and are eventually lost.
Permanent dentition
These are the permanent set of teeth found in adults. These teeth replace the milk dentition and total thirty-
two (32) in all.
 Incisors: these are the front teeth used for biting and cutting food.
They are sharp and chisel shaped having a single root each.
·Canines: these are long, sharp, pointed teeth usually curved and single rooted. They are used for tearing of
food particularly flesh.
Premolars: These are broad flat topped teeth with few cusp/ridges having two roots. Premolars are located
after the canines. The premolars are used for crushing and grinding of food.
·Molars: These are present only in mature mammals. They are located at the side of the mouth; they are the
last set of teeth in a mature
mammal. They are broad flat topped with many cusps/ ridges having three roots. They are used for grinding.
 The structure of a tooth
The tooth is divided into the crown: the portion of the teeth that is exposedjust above
the gum.
Neck: is the portion that rests.
Root: is the portion embedded in the jaw bone.
The crown is covered with enamel which is the hardest substance in the animal’s body.
The next inner layer is the dentine which is a bone like material which is living. The
innermost layer of the tooth is the pulp cavity which contains nerves, blood vessels
that supply the cytoplasm of the dentine with nutrients and oxygen. The tooth is held
in the jaw by cement fibre that grows out of it.
 Dental Formula
Herbivore:
· The incisors are long, sharp and forward pointing with roots that are
open to allow continuous growth.
· No canines but diastema for mixing of food.
· Premolars and molars have a lot of cusps for efficient grinding.
  Dental formula: I 2/1 c o/o pm 3/2 m 3/3
Carnivore:
·The incisors are short, peg shaped and backward pointing for catching
prey.
· Canines are long pointed and curved.
·Premolars are sharper than normal and are known as carnassial teeth.
· Molars have transverse ridges for grinding and restricted roots.
· Dental formula: I 3/3 c 1/1 pm4/4 m2/3
Omnivore:
· Incisors are short, sharp and upward pointing.
· Canines are short and sharp.
· Premolars and molars have broad surfaces.
· Dental formula: I 2/2 c1/1 pm2/2 m3/3
Tooth decay
Like all dental diseases, tooth decay is caused by bacteria which are
present n large numbers in the mouth. Some of these bacteria, together
with substance from the saliva, form sticky film over the teeth known as
plague, especially next to the gums and in between the teeth. Plague is
soft when initially made but hardens to form tartar, which cannot be
removed by brushing.
If sugar is left on the teeth the bacteria in the plague feeds on it,
changing it into acid. The acid gradually dissolves the enamel covering
the teeth and works its way into the dentine.
 
Other dental diseases
 .The most common periodontal disease is gingivitis—an inflammation of the
gums.
Symptoms include tender and sometimes swollen gums that bleed easily.
· Halitosis, or bad breath;
· Ulcers
·Necrosis, or destruction of the mouth tissues, may develop in severe cases.
·Trench mouth, or Vincent's gingivitis, is a form of the disease caused by
bacteria that infect the weakened tissue
Pyorrhea is a common disease of the periodontal membrane, which is the
tissue between the tooth and the tooth socket holding the tooth in place. It is
usually caused by hardened bacteria, called bacterial plaque, that attach to
the teeth and destroy the periodontal tissue.
· Malocclusion condition in which the teeth are not properly aligned.
Irregularities of alignment such as crooked teeth and malocclusion are
corrected by orthodontics. Orthodontics involves realigning teeth through a
slow process in which braces—fixed metal bands, wires, and removable
plates—are used
 Digestion in Lower Organisms
Digestion in unicellular protist
The digestive system found in Amoeba is simple as the organism extends its pseudopodium
around the prey and forms a food vacuole around it. The digestive enzymes are then
secreted to break down the food which is assimilated into the cytoplasm. In Paramecium,
the cilia beat sweeping water containing food into the oral groove which leads to the
gullet. The food vacuole is then formed around the food and it is digested

Digestion in Cnidaria
Hydra which is a member of this family has stinging cells on its tentacles
 which it uses to paralyze its prey. When a prey is sighted in its aquatic environment, it
thrusts the tentacles, paralyzing the prey and lowering it into the centralized mouth. Once
the prey is swallowed it is dropped into the enteron or gut which is lined with flagella. The
flagella helps in the mixing of the food as digestive enzymes is secreted on it breaking
down the foods.
Digestion in Cnidaria
Hydra which is a member of this family has stinging cells on its tentacles
which it uses to paralyze its prey. When a prey is sighted in its aquatic environment, it
thrusts the tentacles, paralyzing the prey and lowering it into the centralized mouth.
Once the prey is swallowed it is dropped into the enteron or gut which is lined with
flagella. The flagella helps in the mixing of the food as digestive enzymes is secreted on
it breaking down the foods.
Digestion in Platyhelminthes
Depending on the type of flatworm, there is need for the possession of a
digestive tract because not all flatworms are parasitic, needing no digestion. In
Planaria which is a free living example, there is a simple shaped alimentary tract which
runs through the entire body having a unique reverted pharynx linked to the mouth.
Digestion in earthworm
The alimentary canal of an earthworm consists of a mouth, oesophagus,
crop, gizzard, intestine and anus. The food passes through the mouth to the crop
through the oesophagus. The crop is an expanded part of the gut where mechanical
digestion and storage of food occurs. The food leaves the crop in tiny bits to the gizzard
which is muscular and contains tiny stones. The function of the gizzard is to grind the
food so it can be fully digested and absorbed when it arrives at the intestine.

Digestion in Insects
The cockroach is a scavenger in the human dwelling eating materials ranging from food to
wood. The digestive tract of the cockroach begins with a chewing mouth part. In the mouth are
salivary glands that secret saliva to soften and dissolve the food. The food is then passed to the
oesophagus which links the mouth to the large roomy crop which serves as a store. From the
crop, the food is released into the gizzard where further mechanical breakdown of
food occurs then it is passed down to the coiled intestine, where the final break down
and absorption of food occurs. The alimentary canal of a cockroach terminates with a
rectum where undigested food materials are passed out from..
Alimentary canal of an insect

Digestion in bird
Like insects, birds use their beaks and also their feet while feeding. The
shape of the bird’s beak is directly related to the type of food it eats. For
instance, the carnivorous eagle has sharp hooked beak which enables it to
separate flesh from bone.
The alimentary canal of the bird possesses a crop and a gizzard. In the crop
 the food is stored for a short time before it is passed at regular controlled
intervals to the rest of the gut. Since the bird cannot chew as it has no
teeth, the gizzard which is filled with small stones assist in mechanical
digestion, as the muscular walls move grinding the food before it is passed
to the intestine where digestive enzymes break it into absorbable forms. At
the end of the alimentary canal is an enlarged portion known as the cloaca.
 
Match the heads of the birds with their legs
 Class Work
A human tooth was suspended in hydrochloric acid and left for 24 hours, as shown in the figure.
When the tooth was removed and washed, the lower part, to which the cotton was attached, was
no longer hard, but soft and rubbery. After replacing the tooth in the acid for another 24 hours, the
rest of the tooth was also soft

(a) (i) Name the part of the tooth to which the cotton was attached. (ii) Name the type of human
tooth used in this experiment. State two reasons for your answer.
(iii) With reference to tooth structure, suggest and explain why the lower part of the tooth became
soft before the upper part.
 b. The figure below shows a tube of ‘White Teeth’ toothpaste.  

 (b) State and explain two reasons why regular brushing with this toothpaste would help to protect
teeth from decay.
(c) Brushing is not the only way of protecting teeth from decay. State two
other ways of maintaining healthy teeth.