Aircraft Performance

AERO 3021
Takeoff Performance Requirements & Obstacle Clearance
 Contents

Takeoff Performance Requirements & Obstacle Clearance – from slide 3

Takeoff Performance Considerations, Pavement Strength – from slide 81

Factors Affecting Range, Cruise Levels & Altitude Capability – from slide 131

Practice Questions – from slide 157

Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Introduce the 4 segments of takeoff
• Discuss the performance requirements associated with the 4 segments
• Discuss the difference between ‘gross’ and ‘net’ performance
• Introduce the takeoff area and discuss its parameters
• Introduce the concept of obstacle clearance and discuss specific requirements
Need to know Need to do
The 4 segments of takeoff and how they are Complete the questions at the end of the slides
defined
The performance requirements for the 4
segments of takeoff
The difference between ‘gross’ and ‘net’
performance
The takeoff area and how its parameters are
calculated
The requirements for maintaining obstacle
clearance in the event of an engine failure
 Take-Off Climb Performance
Net Height
The geometric height attained at any point in the take-off flight
path using net climb performance

Net height determines the net flight path which must clear any
obstacle by at least –

• Dry runway:
• 35 feet if the bank angle does not exceed 15 degrees
• 50 feet if the bank angle exceeds 15 degrees
• Wet runway:
• 15 feet if the bank angle does not exceed 15 degrees
• 30 feet if the bank angle exceeds 15 degrees
 Take-Off Climb Performance

Reference Zero

A point on the runway or clearway plane at

the end of the take-off distance and 35 feet
below the flight path; to which height and
distance coordinates of later points in the
take-off flight path are referred
 Take-Off Climb Performance

Once the aeroplane is airborne at the Reference

Zero point, runway length and runway
performance become irrelevant (you are now
flying!)

From at the Reference Zero point, the

performance standards focus on the ability of
the aeroplane to climb clear of obstacles in an
emergency
 Take-Off Climb Performance

Calculations of take-off climb performance

are based on data that assumes failure of a
critical engine before V1

Part of the consideration of take-off climb

performance looks at the gross climb
capability of the aeroplane type
 Take-Off Climb Performance

Gross climb capability is expressed in terms

of the gradient of climb, and must be
demonstrated to certain minimum values for
type certification to be granted

Gradient, or angle of climb is used instead

of rate of climb because angle is used to
ensure clearance of obstacles
 Take-Off Climb Performance
The word ‘Gross' refers to the maximum value in
Climb Gradient that the aeroplane can achieve

Certain minimum ‘Gross' climb gradients must be

demonstrated to gain type certification.

These figures are determined by the manufacturer

when the aeroplane and engines are new, and the
sequences are flown under controlled conditions by
a test pilot
 Take-Off Climb Performance

Demonstrated Gross certification figures

are unlikely in the case of a real emergency
situation.

For this reason the climb gradients used in

the Flight Manual tables have been reduced
by stipulated amounts; these are termed
‘Net’ values.
 Take-Off Climb Performance
These reduced gradient values, called Net
Gradients, are the ones that must be used to
calculate performance in relation to actual
obstacles.

The Flight Manual data contains only Net Gradient

figures.

The Gross Performance, demonstrated at

certification, is not used for actual performance
planning
 Take-Off Climb Performance
Climb Gradient - The ratio, expressed as a
percentage, of the change in geometric height
divided by the horizontal distance travelled in a
given time

Gross Gradient is the actual calculated

performance of the airplane under specified
conditions

Net Gradient is the Gross Gradient, reduced by an

increment specified in the regulations, to account
for pilot handling, airframe and engine condition etc.
 Net Climb Gradient

Net gradients for each aircraft (number of

engines) require the manufacturer to reduce
gross values by a set amount
Take-Off Climb Net/Gross Gradients

This gradient reduction is considered to account for

o Imperfect pilot technique
o Variations in aircraft characteristics
o Engine deterioration over time

The reduction of gross-to-net gradients are:

 0.8% for two-engine aircraft
 0.9% for three-engine aircraft
 1.0% for four-engine aircraft
 Net Climb Gradient
1st Segment 2nd Segment 3rd Segment 4th Segment

Gross Flight
Path

Net Flight
1500ft
Path
Gross and Net Climb Gradient
 Take-Off Climb Performance

400’

35’
Ref 0
Gear Accelerate to Commence climb at 1
retraction 1 Engine Engine Inoperative
Complete Inoperative climb speed
climb speed
and retract
flap
Take-Off Climb Performance
1st Segment: From 35 ft (may be 15 ft if wet) until
the landing gear is fully retracted

2nd Segment: From gear retraction to a minimum of

400 ft above the take-off surface (AAL), or higher if
necessary to clear obstacles by 35’.

2nd Segment is typically the most limiting for ‘takeoff

climb’ performance.
3rd Segment: From 400 ft (or higher if necessary)
until it has accelerated to best engine inoperative
climb speed (Vyse) and with flap retraction
complete

This segment may be flown level and is often called

the Acceleration Segment
4th Segment: From the height reached at the end of
the 3rd segment (normally 400ft) until 1,500 ft
above the take-off surface (AAL)

Often called the Final Segment

 1st Segment

From 35 ft (may be 15 ft if wet) until the landing gear is fully

retracted, it assumes that the aeroplane is maintaining V2

Reason to specify a separate segment (that lasts only as long

as it takes the gear to retract)?

Aeroplane is transitioning from a takeoff to a climb

configuration; being very low, very slow and with increased
drag as the gear is retracted
 1st Segment

Where is the increase in drag coming from?

Increase in drag is due to the gear doors

cycling open and then closed to allow the
undercarriage to retract into the wheel well
 Performance - 1st Segment

Gross climb gradients in the first segment are:

 Twin-engine aeroplanes - any positive gradient

 Three-engine aeroplanes – 0.3% climb gradient
 Four-engine aeroplanes – 0.5% climb gradient

 note: this is the only segment where Net is not used

Performance - 1st Segment
 2nd Segment

The second segment extends from the

completion of gear retraction to a minimum
of 400 ft above the take-off surface, or
higher if necessary, to clear obstacles.
 Performance – 2nd Segment

Gross climb gradients in the second segment are:

 2 Engines – 2.4% gross gradient (146 ft/nm)

 3 Engines – 2.7% gross gradient (164 ft/nm)

 4 Engines – 3.0% gross gradient (182 ft/nm)

 Performance – 2nd Segment

Guesses?? 35’ AGL

400’ AAL

35’ AGL
Performance – 2nd Segment
 3rd Segment

This segment may be flown level and is often called

the Acceleration Segment

A transition stage, provided for aeroplane

acceleration to engine inoperative climb speed AND
flap retraction
 3rd Segment

A minimum speed above V2 must be achieved

before retracting flaps; larger flap settings require
longer to fully retract

A take-off conducted with less flap will have a

shorter third segment
 3rd Segment

The third segment finishes when the

aeroplane has retracted flap and reached
the desired ‘engine-out’ climb speed; the
quicker the acceleration, the shorter the
third segment
 3rd Segment

The required performance at certification specifies the following gross

gradients be available for climb if needed:

 Two engines – 1.2% gross climb gradient

 Three engines – 1.4% gross climb gradient

 Four engines – 1.5% gross climb gradient

3rd Segment
 4th Segment

The final segment ends when the aeroplane has reached 1,500ft AAL, at
which point it must:

Climb to a safe altitude to conduct an instrument approach or make a visual

approach and landing, or

Divert to the Take-Off Alternate airport (because weather prevents a return)

 4th Segment

From the end of the 3rd segment (normally

400ft) until 1,500 ft above the take-off
surface is the 4th or Final Segment
 4th Segment

In areas of high terrain, the final segment

may need to be extended to a higher
altitude to assure terrain clearance.
Climb Performance – 4th Segment
 Take-Off Climb Net/Gross Gradients
Gross Flight Path
Take-off flight path actually flown by the aircraft,
based upon the gross height attained. The flight
path commences at reference zero

Net Flight Path

Gross take-off flight path minus a mandatory
reduction, based upon the net height attained
 Obstacle Limited Take-off Weight

An aircraft is required to clear all obstacles

after take-off even if it suffers an engine failure
which is recognised by V1

To meet this requirement the Gross Climb

Gradient in the first segment and the Net
Climb Gradient in the second segment must
meet the published gradient
 Obstacle Limited Take-off Weight
Restricting take-off weight to achieve the
second segment Net Climb Gradient will
ensure compliance with the first segment
Gross Climb Gradient

The maximum weight at which the second

segment net climb gradient can be met is
called the Obstacle Limited Take-off Weight
 Obstacle Limited Take-off Weight

The declared distances published in the

Runway Distances Supplement of ERSA;
specifies an obstacle clear take-off gradient
next to the runway TODA
Obstacle Limited Take-off Weight
Obstacle Limited Take-off Weight
No. Gross Gradient Factor Minimum
Engines Net Gradient
2 2.4 0.8 1.6
3 2.7 0.9 1.8
4 3F.P0 r1.0 2.0
Supplementary Take-off Distance (STOD)

For a twin engine aircraft, which requires a net

gradient in the second segment of 1.6%, this
published obstacle free gradient of 3.33%, for runway
32, would prohibit use of the full runway length or
TODA; for the continued take-off in the event of an
engine failure before V1.

The 3 and 4 engine aircraft, which require net

gradients of 1.8% and 2.0%, would also be unable to
use the full published TODA
Supplementary Take-off Distance (STOD)
Supplementary Take-off Distance (STOD)

However, if we measure from the top of the

limiting obstacle back towards the runway at
the end of the TODA, at shallower gradients
than the 3.33%, there will be a series of
gradients, associated with the shorter take-off
distances.
Supplementary Take-off Distance (STOD)

Shorter assumed runway lengths will reduce the climb

gradients required.

Adjusting the weight of the aeroplane so that it gets

airborne at a take-off distance shorter than the full
length available, it becomes possible to achieve the
reduced climb gradient requirements

This technique is used when a limiting obstacle is

close to the end of the runway
Supplementary Take-off Distance (STOD)

The shorter runway lengths associated with a

series of gradients are called Supplementary
Take-off Distances (STOD) and are
published in the Runway Distances
Supplement of ERSA.
Supplementary Take-off Distance (STOD)

These shorter runway lengths associated with

a series of gradients are called
Supplementary Take-off Distances (STOD)
and are published in the Runway Distances
Supplement of ERSA
 Take-Off Area
Obstacles consist of all terrain and obstructions within the ‘Take-off Area’.

For aircraft with a wingspan less than 60m (i.e. B727 with a wingspan of
33m), the take-off area comprises the area within (half the wingspan of the
aircraft) + 60m + 0.125D

(B727: 16.5m) + 60m + 0.125D

= 76.5m + 0.125D either side of the intended flight path across the ground.

‘D’ is the distance from TODA

The take-off area extends to the end of the final segment and an obstacle
clearance of 35ft must be available throughout, using Net gradient data
 Take-off Area
Avoiding obstacles – B727:

TODA Ends (Departure

end of runway)
Lateral distance
either side of
track = 76.5m +
76.5m 0.125 x D
“D”
 Take-off Area
• Take-off area extends to different lengths depending on the departure routing and
the aircraft’s navigation specification:

• If track change not greater than 15 degrees:

• The lateral distance of the takeoff area is limited to 600m.

• If track change exceeds 15 degrees:

• The lateral distance of the takeoff area is limited to a maximum of
900m.
 Take-off Area Avoiding obstacles:

• 0 to the greater of 50ft or half the aircraft’s wing span (B727 – 54ft) - No
turns
• Above this altitude: Bank angle may only exceed 15° AOB if performance
data provides for a higher angle of bank. If so, max 25° AOB.
• Obstacle clearances required for turns are as follows:

Dry runway:
• 35 feet if the bank angle does notDoes this 15
exceed define a ‘turn’?
degrees
• 50 feet if the bank angle exceeds 15 degrees

Wet runway:
• 15 feet if the bank angle does not exceed 15 degrees
• 30 feet if the bank angle exceeds 15 degrees
Enroute – Obstacle Clearance Requirements

Enroute phase commences at the end of the take-off climb final segment
at 1,500 ft above the take-off surface

In the enroute configuration and with an engine inoperative, the net

flightpath of the aeroplane in the enroute phase
HOW CAN THIS BE?? must:
If this is true...

• Have a positive slope at 1000 ft above the highest terrain/obstacle

within 5nm either side of track, OR
• Clear by 2000 ft vertically, the highest terrain/obstacle within 5nm
either side of track.

If the navigation system cannot maintain RNP 2 or better, 5nm must be

increased to 10nm.
Enroute – Obstacle Clearance Requirements

Note: Net flightpath gradient of the aeroplane

(with an engine, or engines inoperative), must
be positive (or not less than zero) at the
relevant pressure heights.

This means that if, whilst en-route, descending

flight over obstacles within 5nm of track, is
not, permissible with only 1,000 ft vertical
clearance
 Take-off Weight Limitations
Part 121 MOS sections 9.02 & 9.03 contains criteria
for establishing the Maximum Permissible Take-off
Weight for a given situation

 Take-Off Distance and Accelerate-Stop Distance

 Take-Off Climb and Obstacle Clearance Climb

 Enroute Obstacle Clearance

 Landing Distance and Weight Requirements

 Take-off Weight Limitations How is Wind
factored for
 Take-Off Distance and Takeoff
Accelerate-Stopcalculations?
Distance

“The weight at which the TODR and ASDR

for the aerodrome conditions, the wind
component along the runway, the runway
slope and surface conditions at the time of
take-off is equal to the TODA and ASDA
available in the direction of take-off”
 Take-off Weight Limitations

 Take-Off Climb and Obstacle Clearance

Climb

“A weight which will permit compliance with

take-off climb and obstacle clearance
requirements, taking into account ambient
temperature and aerodrome elevation”
 Take-off Weight Limitations

 Enroute Obstacle Clearance

“A weight which will permit compliance with

enroute obstacle clearance requirements”
 Take-off Weight Limitations

 Landing Distance Requirements

“A weight, which allowing for normal

consumption of fuel and oil in flight to the
destination (and alternate aerodrome), and
taking into account forecast temperature
and aerodrome elevation, will permit
compliance with landing distance
requirements”
Practice Question 1
Question: What is the difference between a gross and net climb
gradient?
Practice Question 1
Question: What is the difference between a gross and net climb
gradient?
Answer: Gross Gradient is the actual calculated performance of the
airplane under (ideal) specified conditions, and is only used to gain
aircraft certification. Conditions include: new airframe, engines, and
flown under controlled conditions by a test pilot
Net Gradient is the Gross Gradient reduced by an increment specified
in the regulations. This is to account for realistic scenarios that lead to
reductions in performance compared to aircraft certification. These may
include: varying aircraft and engine conditions, environmental
conditions, and pilot technique.
Practice Question 2
Question:  What are the minimum gross climb gradients required for 2,
3 and 4 engine aircraft during the first segment of climb?
Practice Question 2
Question: What are the minimum gross climb gradients required for 2,
3 and 4 engine aircraft during the first segment of climb?

Answer: Positive, 0.3% and 0.5% respectively

Part 121 MOS Section 9.05 para. 2 refers

Practice Question 3
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. What are the minimum gross climb
gradients required for 2, 3 and 4 engine aircraft respectively during the
second segment of climb?
Practice Question 3
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. What are the minimum gross climb
gradients required for 2, 3 and 4 engine aircraft respectively during the
second segment of climb?

Answer: 2.4%, 2.7% and 3.0%

Refer to Part 121 MOS Section 9.05 para. 3

Practice Question 4
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. What is the minimum height required
for the commencement of the third segment?
Practice Question 4
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. What is the minimum height required
for the commencement of the third segment?

Answer: 400 feet AAL. This must be increased if there are obstacle
clearance requirements

Part 121 MOS Section 9.06 para. 2 refers.

Practice Question 5
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. For a takeoff that is continued
following the failure of the critical engine at V1, what vertical obstacle
clearance must the aircraft's net flight path achieve within the takeoff
area for departures if the bank angle exceeds 15 degrees?

Dry runway: _________ ft

Wet runway: _________ ft
Practice Question 5
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. For a takeoff that is continued
following the failure of the critical engine at V1, what vertical obstacle
clearance must the aircraft's net flight path achieve within the takeoff
area for departures if the bank angle exceeds 15 degrees?

Answer: Dry runway: 50 ft

Wet runway: 30 ft

Part 121 MOS Section 9.04 para. 1 refers.

Practice Question 6
Question: In the en route configuration, with an engine inoperative,
what is the net climb gradient required at 1000ft above all obstacles
within 5nm of track?
Practice Question 6
Question: Part 121 MOS refers. In the en route configuration with an
engine inoperative, what is the net climb gradient required at 1000ft
above all obstacles within 5nm of track?
Answer: Positive slope

(actual term is ‘not negative’)

Part 121 MOS Section 9.08 para. 2a (i)

Main Principles
• 4 segments of takeoff
• Performance requirements associated with the 4 segments
• Difference between ‘gross’ and ‘net’ performance
• Takeoff area and discuss its parameters
• Obstacle clearance requirements

Need to know Need to do

The 4 segments of takeoff and how they are Complete the questions at the end of the slides
defined
The performance requirements for the 4
segments of takeoff
The difference between ‘gross’ and ‘net’
performance
The takeoff area and how its parameters are
calculated
The requirements for maintaining obstacle
clearance in the event of an engine failure
 Aircraft Performance
AERO 3021
Takeoff Performance Considerations, Pavement Strength
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss factors impacting takeoff performance calculations
• Introduce pavement strength metrics

Need to know Need to do

The operational/practical factors which impact Complete the questions at the end of the slides
takeoff performance calculations
The metrics used in defining and categorising
aerodrome pavement strength
Practical Application of Take-off Performance

 Flap setting
 Brake energy limits
 Line-up allowance
 Anti-ice
 Reverse thrust
 Tyre limits
 Anti-Skid & ground spoilers
 Reduced thrust T/O
Practical Application of Take-off Performance
Practical Application of Take-off Performance
Practical Application of Take-off Performance

What determines
the stopping distance
following engine failure?
Practical Application – Selection of V2

Ideally V2 is selected to provide for the

maximum angle (gradient) of climb with the
wheels retracted but with the flap in the take-
off position

In this case, the aeroplane will be able to

climb at maximum angle in the early part of
flight (to 400 ft as minimum) with one engine
inoperative
Practical Application – Selection of V2

But, the certification does not specify V2 must

be the same speed as for maximum angle
climb

The only certification require­ments for V2 are:

V2 must be > 1.2 VS and V2 must be > 1.1 VMCA

Practical Application – Selection of V2
A swept wing aeroplane using a V2 just over the
minimum 1.2Vs would not climb so well in the second
segment, at a time when climb requirements with one
engine inoperative impose the most significant
limitation to take-off weight

Many runways are longer than needed for most

calculations of TODR and ASDR

So what could be a compromise?

Practical Application – Selection of V2
V2 for swept wing aeroplanes is often at a
higher speed than the minimum 1.2Vs allowed
and closer to the maximum climb angle speed

An even higher V2 speed (V2 overspeed) may

be chosen, to improve the second segment
climb capability and allow higher take-off
weight at high and hot airports, such as Alice
Springs; subject to TODA and ASDR
Practical Application – Selection of V2

A higher V2 speed improves second segment

climb capability, but increases the TODR and
TORR; compared to a V2 closer to 1.2Vs
Practical Application – T/O Flap Settings
Most aeroplane manufacturers will specify
multiple flap settings that are approved for
take-off.

Each approved setting will have a full set of

take-off and climb data available in the Flight
Manual

Using less flap allows a greater gradient of

climb in the first and second segments. Why?
Practical Application – T/O Flap Settings
All aeroplanes have a 'preferred' take-off flap setting

The use of less flap may be necessary at a given

weight to satisfy second segment requirements, but
will result in longer TODR and TORR

Less flap will also generate a higher V1 VR and V2 for a

given weight

More flap will use less runway but increase obstacle

clearance distances during the climb out.
Practical Application – Brake Energy Limits

Take-off at high weights in high ambient temperatures

can result in a situation where an RTO from V1 would
exceed the energy absorbing ability of the brakes (in
some cases)

This is particularly so when small flap settings are

used at high (WAT) weight/temperature/altitude
combinations, which result in a high V1
Practical Application – Brake Energy Limits

Aeroplanes affected by this limitation will have

a chart in the Flight Manual which allows
calculation of the limiting take-off weight
(brakes release weight) as determined by
brake energy limits
Practical Application – Runway Line Up
In a situation where the taxiway enters the runway at
or beyond the threshold, it is not possible for the
aeroplane to be positioned so that the full
TODA/ASDA can be utilized for Take-off

A line-up allowance (LUA) is subtracted from the

TODA to give an “effective TODA/ASDA”

LUA will vary, depending on aeroplane type; 45m is

used for the B727. Use of this calculation will be
specified in an aircraft Flight Manual
Practical Application – Runway Line Up
Practical Application – Use of Anti-ice

Where ambient conditions require the use of anti-ice

systems for take-off, allowance are made for the
reduced engine thrust available at that temperature
with bleed air being used for engine anti-ice.

All aeroplanes have corrections for TODR, ASDR, and

take-off climb weight limits based on the bleed air
requirements of anti-ice systems
Practical Application – Use of Anti-ice

These corrections may be in the form of totally

separate charts/tables or may permit percentage
adjustments to normal performance figures

Another simple application is to reduce the permitted

take-off weight in a given situation by a set amount
(say 200 kg) when anti-ice is used
Practical Application – No Reversers

The use of reverse thrust is not included in the

certification testing process to determine
accelerate-stop distance

However, in the event of a rejected take-off,

reverse thrust on remaining engines(s)
provides a useful safety 'buffer' for the
required performance.
Practical Application – No Reversers
All modern airline aeroplanes are fitted with reverse
thrust and most company operating standards would
either prohibit take-off with reversers known to be
unserviceable or require the use of special take-off
charts which allow for the necessary performance
adjustment, i.e. a lower V1

For aeroplanes not fitted with reverse thrust,

accelerate-stop distances must be increased by 10%
Practical Application – Tyre Speed Limits
Aircraft taking off at a high weight and in a high
temperature will have a high VR.
The lift-off speed (VLOF) must not exceed the tyre limit
speed

Anti-skid system
Modern anti-skid braking systems permit better
braking performance than normal 'pilot-regulated'
brakes
Accelerate-stop performance will be based on the
braking system fitted to the aeroplane
Practical Application – Tyre Speed Limits

Anti-skid systems are designed to minimise

aquaplaning and the potential tyre damage
which can occur when a wheel is locked, or
rotating at a speed which does not correspond
to the speed of the aircraft.
Practical Application – Ground Spoilers
Practical Application – Ground Spoilers

Ground Spoilers Inoperative

The use of ground spoilers assist braking in a

landing or accelerate-stop situation by
allowing more weight to be transmitted to the
wheels at higher speeds
If ground spoilers are not available, stopping
distance will increase and a correction factor
will be specified in the Flight Manual.
Practical Application – Ground Spoilers

The primary purpose of the ground spoilers is

to maximise wheel brake efficiency by
"spoiling" or dumping the lift generated by the
wing and thus forcing the full weight of the
aircraft onto the landing gear.

The spoiler panels also help slow the aircraft

by producing aerodynamic drag.
Practical Application – Adverse Runway
Surface

Adverse runway surfaces

All approved take-off data during aircraft certification is
based on a dry sealed runway surface.

Part 121 MOS Section 9.03 specifies the use of

appropriate performance data (in accordance with
CASR 121.390) or adjustments in the event of wet
and contaminated runways.
Practical Application – Adverse Runway
Surface

Adverse runway surfaces

These corrections are normally a percentage
decrement, or a fixed weight reduction,
provided by the operator in consultation with
the manufacturer, and approved by the
Authority.
 Practical Application – Ground Spoilers

MD 80 aircraft as
an example
Practical Application – Rotation rate

During certification testing of each aeroplane,

account is taken of the rate at which the
aeroplane should be rotated at VR to the take-
off pitch attitude (specified in the Flight Crew
Training Manual)

Rotation at significantly faster or slower rates

will result in longer take-off distances.
Practical Application – Rotation rate

Rotation at much faster rates may result in

over-rotation and possible tail-strike

Fast rotation is also likely to increase drag in

the rotation phase which will increase the
distance to lift-off
Practical Application – Reduced Thrust T/O
Turbine engines suffer deterioration in
proportion to turbine temperature; with high
temperatures causing increasingly rapid
deterioration.
There are significant benefits to economics
and noise levels by avoiding full power take-
offs where practical; thus avoiding high
temperatures.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Df7BrgtbA4g
What is FLEX TEMPERATURE?
Practical Application – Reduced Thrust T/O

If a take-off is to be carried out at a weight

less than that permitted for a given set of
conditions, it may be acceptable to carry out a
reduced thrust take-off.

The take-off thrust setting can be less than the

maximum take-off thrust under the prevailing
conditions of altitude and temperature
Practical Application – Reduced Thrust T/O

At the reduced thrust setting the aeroplane

must still comply with all runway, obstacle and
climb gradient requirements.

This means that, in the event of an engine

failure, sufficient performance will be available
without the need to increase thrust on the
remaining engine(s)
Practical Application – Reduced Thrust T/O
When using an approved reduced thrust
setting for take-off, the Operations Manual will
specify certain limiting conditions such as:
1. There must be no tailwind, standing
water or windshear
2. Anti-skid and ground spoilers must be
operative
3. Normal take-off flap setting must be
used
Practical Application – Reduced Thrust T/O

The selection of reduced thrust for take-off is

achieved by "telling" the Flight Management
Computer (FMC) that the ambient temperature
is higher than the actual value
Practical Application – Pavement Strength
The ICAO standard for showing the runway
pavement strength is known as the Aircraft
Classification Number/Pavement
Classification Number (ACN/PCN) method

Specifications on the strength of the

pavement, determines the maximum
permissible aeroplane weight and tyre
pressure
Practical Application – Pavement Strength
Because the aeroplane is always heavier at
take-off than at landing, this limitation is more
relevant in Take–off performance
considerations

The operation of an aeroplane above the

maximum weight and tyre pressure is not
permitted, unless a pavement concession is
approved by the aerodrome operator.
Practical Application – Pavement Strength

Adelaide International Elevation 20 ft

Movement area

05/23 PCN 72/F/D/1400 KPa (203 PSl)/U

Porous Grooved

12/30 PCN 53/F/D/1400 KPa (203 PSI) /U

Practical Application – Pavement Strength
PCN 72/F/D/1400 (203 PSI)
Runway 05/23 is the longest runway (ie: primary runway) and
it has PCN classification details of 72/F/D/1400 (203 PSI).

PCN is 72
Flexible pavement (I.e. tar-sealed, not concrete)
D rating for sub-grade strength
Maximum aircraft tyre pressure permissible is 1400
kilopascals (KPa), equivalent to 203 (PSI)

All taxiways to the runway in question can support the aircraft

at the runway PCN limit gross weight
Practical Application – Pavement Strength
PCN 72/F/D/1400 (203 PSI)

 The B727-200 aircraft classification graph (found in the

AIP) for flexible pavements indicates the tyre pressure
of 1035 Kpa; which is < 1400 Kpa (max)

 The B727-200 has a maximum structural taxi gross

limit weight of 89,700 kg and ACN 63

 For the published sub-grade strength category of "D“,

the aircraft classification number ACN can be equal to,
but not greater than, the PCN
Practical Application – Pavement Strength
PCN72/F/D/1400 (203 PSI)
Practice Question 7
Question: With regards to pavement strength at an aerodrome, what
are the two main aircraft-related limitations that determine whether
it can be operated there?
Practice Question 7
Question: With regards to pavement strength at an aerodrome, what
are the two main aircraft-related limitations that determine whether
it can be operated there?

Answer: Aircraft weight and tyre pressure

The aircraft's gross weight, in conjunction with the sub-grade strength

category of the aerodrome's pavement, determines the aircraft
classification number (A.C.N). The A.C.N cannot be larger than the
pavement classification number (P.C.N). 
The tyre pressure cannot exceed the maximum allowable tyre pressure
for the pavement surface 
 Main Principles
• Factors impacting takeoff performance calculations
• Pavement strength metrics

Need to know Need to do

The operational/practical factors which impact Complete the questions at the end of the slides
takeoff performance calculations
The metrics used in defining and categorising
aerodrome pavement strength
ATPL Performance and Loading (APLA)
AERO 3021

Factors affecting range, Cruise Levels and Altitude Capability

 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Review basic aerodynamics and discuss their impact on range
• Introduce the concept of non-RVSM cruise levels
• Introduce the concept of altitude capability

Need to know Need to do

The aerodynamic factors which affect a Complete the questions at the end of the slides
transport category aircraft’s range
Non-RVSM cruise levels for easterly and
westerly flights
The general concept of altitude capability with
reference to the 727 POH
Thrust
• Thrust is one of the 4 forces acting on an aircraft

• Since thrust is a force, thrust produced is a function of airflow

mass and acceleration of the airflow.

• Therefore, thrust = mass x acceleration

Thrust-Drag relationship
• As learnt in CPL theory, thrust and drag are equal and opposite forces when
flying at a constant speed. This means that thrust required = total drag.
• There is a point on the total drag curve where total drag is at a minimum.
This is the minimum drag speed.
• Since thrust required = total drag, when flying at minimum drag speed,
thrust required is also at a minimum. This means that the total drag curve
also represents the thrust required.
• The use of minimum thrust will burn the least fuel, which will give us
maximum endurance
• It will also give us maximum excess thrust (thrust available – thrust
required), which means the minimum drag speed = maximum angle of
climb speed (Vx)
• In summary, minimum drag speed = minimum thrust required =
maximum angle of climb speed (maximum excess thrust) = maximum
endurance
Thrust/Drag curve
Maximum Angle of Climb vs Maximum Rate of
Climb

• Maximum Angle of Climb (Vx) is achieved at a speed which allows

for maximum excess thrust
•
• Maximum Rate of Climb (Vy) is achieved at a speed which allows for
maximum excess power
Specific Fuel Consumption and RPM
• Specific fuel consumption (SFC) tells us how much fuel is burnt
per unit of thrust. The lower the SFC, the more efficient the engine
is. It measures engine efficiency
• SFC = fuel consumption per hour / thrust produced
• Fuel and thrust can be expressed in lbs or kgs, as long as the units
are kept consistent on both sides
• For example, on an aircraft that burns 6000kg/hr and produces
7500kg of thrust, its SFC would be 0.80, which is typical of most
airliners.
• Jet engines have a design RPM of around 92-98% of its maximum
RPM. When the engine is operated at or near the design RPM, fuel
burn and thrust increase, but thrust increases by a larger amount,
which decreases the SFC, making the engine more efficient.
SFC vs % max RPM
Effects of temperature and altitude
• Specific fuel consumption is also affected by changes in
temperature and altitude.
• With constant engine RPM and constant speed, as temperature
increases, thrust produced and fuel consumption both decrease due
to a reduced mass of air.
• However, under hotter temperatures, SFC will still increase by a
small amount.
• As the aircraft climbs higher, increasing altitude leads to lower air
density. Thrust produced and fuel consumption both decrease.
• Up till the tropopause, temperature decreases with altitude. Colder
temperatures lead to a reduced SFC
Maximum Range Cruise (MRC)
• Maximum range is obtained by flying an AOA which achieves the least fuel
burn per mile flown. This is known as the best TAS/drag ratio.
• This occurs at 1.32 x indicated minimum drag speed in still air.
(1.32Vimd). This is flown at an altitude where, for the aircraft’s weight, the
engine can be operated at design RPM to achieve a low SFC
• With a headwind, maximum range is obtained by flying faster than
1.32Vimd. The idea is to get out of the headwind as quickly as possible,
giving us the maximum groundspeed/drag ratio.
• With a tailwind, maximum range is obtained by flying slower than 1.32Vimd,
as the tailwind will increase our groundspeed to give us the maximum
groundspeed/drag ratio.
• As fuel is burnt, the aircraft becomes lighter and the drag curve moves
downwards and to the left. This gives us a lower maximum range speed for
the same AOA.
• To achieve absolute maximum range, the aircraft should climb continuously
so that the required AOA and design RPM can be maintained all the way.
Maximum Range Cruise
Long Range Cruise (LRC)
• Objective is to maintain the AOA for maximum range. This is done
by reducing cruise speed as fuel burns and weight reduces.
• However, flying at lower speeds would take engine RPM below the
optimal range which it is designed to operate at (92-98%), which
increases the engine’s SFC.
• Usually flown 3 to 5% faster compared to a maximum range cruise
• This results in a small 1% range reduction compared to maximum
range cruise (LRC is also known as 99% of MRC)
Maximum Endurance Cruise
• Aim is to fly at an AOA which allows for minimum fuel consumption
per hour, thus maximising time in the air.
• Achieved by flying at a suitable altitude, which allows the minimum
drag speed (Vimd) to be flown at engine design RPM.
• Note that this is slower than the maximum range speed of
1.32Vimd.
• Remember that endurance is not affected by wind.
• The drag curve moves down and left as weight reduces during the
flight. This gives us a decreasing maximum endurance speed for the
same AOA as the flight progresses.
• This means it would be a good idea to climb higher so that we can
stay within our engine design RPM range.
Specific Air Range and Specific Ground Range
• Specific Air Range (SAR) is a function of air miles and fuel
consumption. Basically tells us how far we can fly per 1000kg of fuel
burnt in a nil wind situation.
• SAR = (TAS / fuel consumption per hour) x 1000.
• Specific Ground Range (SGR) is a function of ground miles and
fuel consumption. Basically tells us how far we can fly per 1000kg of
fuel burnt when flying with a head/tailwind
• SGR = (GS / fuel consumption per hour) x 1000
• A high SAR/SGR number is indicative of good fuel efficiency. This
means we are burning less fuel per mile flown
• SGR is usually a more practical way of expressing fuel efficiency
(rarely do we fly in nil wind)
Factors affecting SGR
• Aircraft weight: heavier weight decreases our SGR, because we
have more drag. When flying for maximum range at the required
AOA, we need more speed to achieve more lift when we are
heavier. This also means our MRC speed will increase as weight
increases.
• Altitude:
• For a given speed and aircraft weight, there is a particular
(optimum) altitude where flying at the required AOA for best
range/endurance would yield the maximum SGR.
• This occurs when the thrust required to achieve the speed for
that AOA falls within the design RPM for the engine. Holding
this AOA at any other altitudes might require deviation from
the engine’s design RPM (higher or lower), which decreases
the SGR.
Factors affecting SGR
• SGR is GS/Fuel consumption per hour.
• Temperature: Does not really affect SGR.
• When cruising at a certain Mach number, the TAS will change
with temperature (remember speed of sound changes with
temperature).
• Fuel consumption will also change with temperature.
• An increase in temperature will cause increases in both, and
a decrease in temperature will cause decreases in both.
• This results in more or less the same SGR
• Wind:
• With a strong headwind, we will have a smaller groundspeed.
This decreases our SGR.
• With a strong tailwind, we will have a larger groundspeed.
This increases our SGR.
Altitude Capability
• Cruising levels do not conform to Reduced Vertical Separation
Minima (RVSM) levels in this exam, as this exam was designed
before RVSM was implemented.
• “Odd levels eastbound, even levels westbound” only applies up to
FL290.
• Above FL290, cruising levels are odd thousands, 2000 feet apart.

West East
FL280 FL290
FL310 FL330
FL350 FL370
FL390 FL410
Altitude Capability
• Page 2-14 of the Boeing 727 POH (blue book) contains an altitude
capability table, which details the maximum weights permitted when
flying at a given altitude, speed and temperature condition.
• An exam question would specify your flight’s direction (easterly or
westerly), your aircraft’s weight, cruise speed (in Mach), and
temperature (ISA deviation). You will need to work out the maximum
appropriate altitude whilst considering those conditions.
• If your aircraft’s weight exceeds the maximum allowable weight for
your selected level, then you must select a lower appropriate level,
remembering to consider your flight’s direction.
• The weights given in page 2-14 of the Boeing 727 POH are
written in tonnes. (e.g. 73.6T = 73600kg)
Altitude Capability, 1 engine inoperative
• You may also be given an exam question asking for the maximum
permitted altitude for a given weight and temperature condition
whilst flying with one engine inoperative.
• Page 5-6 of the Boeing 727 POH contains the 1-INOP altitude
capability table.
• Same method, except now the cruising levels are now ‘east odds,
west evens’, and cruise speed does not need to be considered.
Practice Question
Question: To achieve best range, how should the cruise level be
selected with regards to the specific ground range (SGR)? 
Practice Question
Question: To achieve best range, how should the cruise level be selected with
regards to the specific ground range (SGR)? 

Answer: The cruise level which gives the highest SGR should be selected. 

A higher SGR means more distance travelled over the ground per hour for a
given fuel consumption per hour. (SGR = groundspeed/fuel flow). This means
that SGR is highly dependent on head/tailwind components. For a M0.82
cruise, let's take a look at how the SGR varies between two levels:

FL320 – TAS 480, HWC 25kt, FF 4000kg/hr. SGR = 455/4000 = 0.114gnm/kg

FL340 – TAS 475, HWC 50kt, FF 3800kg/hr. SGR = 425/3800 = 0.112gnm/kg

(continued on next slide)

Practice Question
Although cruising at FL340 would save us 200kg of fuel per hour
compared to FL320, the increase in headwind component at FL340
means we will be covering less ground distance per kg of fuel burnt.

This means that cruising at FL340 is actually less efficient than cruising
at FL320. We will get better range at FL320.
Practice Question
Question: When assessing the maximum possible take off weight what
considerations must be taken? 
Practice Question
Question: When assessing the maximum possible take off weight what
considerations must be taken? 

Answer:
TODA & ASDA
Take Off climb and Obstacle clearance climb
Enroute Obstacle clearance
Landing Distance and Weight Requirements
 Main Principles
• Basic aerodynamics and the impact on range
• Non-RVSM cruise levels
• Altitude capability

Need to know Need to do

The aerodynamic factors which affect a Complete the questions at the end of the slides
transport category aircraft’s range
Non-RVSM cruise levels for easterly and
westerly flights
The general concept of altitude capability with
reference to the 727 POH
The End
Question 1
Assuming ambient conditions remain constant, as aircraft weight
reduces in the cruise at a fixed Mach number, what effect does this
have on IAS and specific air range (SAR)?

A. IAS remains the same, SAR reduces

B. IAS increases, SAR increases
C. IAS and SAR both reduce
D. IAS remains the same, SAR increases
Question 2
You are flying on a Boeing 727, and ATC restricts you to FL290 instead
of your planned level of FL370. Which of the following speed schedules
would maximise range?

A. Optimum Mach number, which decreases as fuel is consumed

B. Highest cruise speed (VMO)
C. Minimum steady flight speed
D. Minimum drag speed
E. Optimum Mach number, which increases as fuel is consumed
Question 3
ATC puts you into a holding pattern as you descend to your destination.
In an attempt to maximise endurance, you would fly at –

A. Maximum range cruise speed

B. Minimum drag speed
C. Minimum steady flight speed
D. Maximum rate of climb speed
Question 4
The most efficient cruise in a transport category aircraft is achieved –

A. With maximum TAS to drag

B. With maximum thrust to drag
C. With minimum fuel flow
Question 5
The acceleration (3rd) segment of the takeoff ends –

A. When the aircraft reaches 400 feet above the takeoff surface
B. When the aircraft reaches 1500 feet above the takeoff surface
C. When the aircraft reaches 2000 feet above the takeoff surface
D. When the aircraft has accelerated to the final takeoff climb speed
Question 6
Part 121 MOS refers. You are flying a twin engine turbojet aircraft and
continue the takeoff after critical engine failure at V1. The undercarriage
has been retracted, with the flap and thrust still set for takeoff. What is
the minimum required net climb gradient?

A. 2.4%
B. 2.0%
C. 1.6%
D. 1.2%
Question 7
Part 121 MOS refers. You are flying a turbojet aircraft with 4 engines.
The critical engine fails after liftoff. Now, the undercarriage has been
retracted, and the flaps are currently being retracted as the aircraft flies
straight and level. What is the minimum available gross climb gradient
required?

A. 1.2%
B. 1.4%
C. 1.5%
D. Positive
Question 8
Part 121 MOS refers. You are flying a twin engine turbojet with one
engine inoperative. The aircraft is in the en route configuration, flying
straight and level, and the navigation system is consistently maintaining
RNP 2. What are the requirements for obstacle clearance?

A. All obstacles within 10nm must be cleared by 2000 feet vertically

B. All obstacles within 5nm must be cleared by 1500 feet vertically
C. All obstacles within 10nm must be cleared by 2000 feet vertically
D. All obstacles within 5nm must be cleared by 2000 feet vertically
Question 9
Part 121 MOS refers. What are the second segment gross climb
gradient requirements for non-commuter type aeroplanes with 2, 3 and
4 engines respectively?

A. 1.2%, 1.4%, 1.4%

B. 2.4%, 2.7%, 3.0%
C. 1.8%, 2.0%, 2.2%
D. 1.6%, 1.8%, 2.0%
Question 10
Part 121 MOS refers. You are flying a twin engine, commuter type
aeroplane. The critical engine fails at V1 and you continue the takeoff.
The minimum required net gradient for the second segment is –

A. 2.0%
B. 1.2%
C. 1.6%
D. 2.4%