SOURCE MODELS

SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
Accident always begin with an incident like break
of a pipeline, hole in a tank, runaway reaction or
fire external to vessel.
 Once incident is known, source models are
selected to describe how materials is discharged.
SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
 Source models are constructed from fundamental
equation representing the physiochemical processes
occurring during the release.

 For complex plant many source models are

needed to describe the situation.

 If uncertainty exits for estimating the physical

processes , the parameters should be selected to
maximize the release rate and quantity, that ensures
design is on the safe side
 SOURCE MODELS
Release mechanism – 2 types

Wide aperture-large hole develops in process units

releasing substantial amount of material in short
time.
e.g over-pressuring and explosion of tanks

 Limited aperture-material released at slow rate

that upstream condition is not affected.
e.g leak in tanks, pipe, valve, pumps etc
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS

=0.5 for laminar ; 1.0 turbulent

SOURCE MODELS



SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS

For well rounded nozzles

For Sharp-edge orifice

= 0.81 for short section of pipe attached
to vessel (L/D >3)
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS

=0.5 for laminar ; 1.0 turbulent

SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
The change in fluid height:

Integrating with initial height h0L to any height hL

Solving for hL
 SOURCE MODELS

Substitute this hL in mass discharge rate at any time ‘t’

Reduction in
Initial discharge rate discharge rate
 SOURCE MODELS
The time te for the vessel to empty to the level of the
leak is found by setting hL =0 in equation for hL

If vessel is atmospheric pressure then Pg=0 then,

 Example-2
A cylindrical tank 20 ft high and 8 ft in diameter is used
to store benzene. The tank is padded with nitrogen to a
constant regulated pressure of 1 atm gauge to prevent
explosion. The liquid level within the tank is presently
at 17 ft. A 1-in puncture occurs in the tank 5 ft off the
ground because of the careless driving of a forklift
truck. Estimate:
(a) the gallons of benzene spilled,
(b) the time required for the benzene to leak out
(c) the maximum mass flow rate of benzene through
the leak.
The specific gravity of benzene at these conditions is
0.8794.
SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
Flow of incompressible liquid through pipes-energy balance

F- frictional losses due to major and minor losses

 SOURCE MODELS
Fanning friction factor(f) is a function of the NRe and
Roughness(  )of the pipe.
For laminar flow
For turbulent flow is given by colebrook equation

Eq.1

For fully developed turbulent flow in rough pipe f is

independent of NRe and nearly constant f at high NRe. For
this Eq. 1 becomes
 SOURCE MODELS
For smooth pipe =0 and Eqn becomes

For any range of Re values and Roughness we can use Moody’s chart
x

f = 0.019
 SOURCE MODELS
2-K Method

For pipe fittings , valves and other flow obstruction, the

head loss is calculated by 2-K method.

This 2-K method determines the excess head loss with NRe and
pipe internal diameter.

Kf is the excess head loss (dimensionless),

K1 and K are constants (dimensionless)- Values from table 4.2
Re is the Reynolds number (dimensionless), and
ID inches is the internal diameter of the flow path (inches)
 SOURCE MODELS
2-K Method
For pipe entrance and exits the excess head loss is account for
the change in K.E.

For pipe entrances, K1 = 160 and K = 0.50 for a normal entrance

and K= 1.0 for a Borda type entrance.
For pipe exits, K1 = 0 and K= 1.0.
This K factor account for the changes in K.E through these piping
so NO additional terms is reqd.
For high NRe>10,000 Kf =K For low NRe Kf =K1/NRe
This 2-K method also represents the liquid discharge through
holes.
SOURCE MODELS
 Example-3
Water contaminated with small amounts of hazardous waste is
gravity-drained out of a large storage tank through a straight, new
commercial steel pipe, 100 mm ID (internal diameter). The pipe is
100 m long with a gate valve near the tank. The entire pipe
assembly is mostly horizontal. If the liquid level in the tank is 5.8 m
above the pipe outlet, and the pipe is accidently severed 33 m from
the tank, compute the flow rate of material escaping from the pipe.
 Example-4
Water is pumped through a 1-in schedule 40 pipe
(internal diameter = 1.049 in) at 400 gal/hr. If the
pressure at one point in the pipe is 103 psig and a small
leak develops 22 ft downstream, compute the fluid
pressure at the leak. The pipe section is horizontal and
without fittings or valves. For water at these conditions
the viscosity is 1.0 centipoise and the density is 62.4
lbm/ft3. Assume new, commercial steel pipe.

If a globe valve is added to the pipe section, compute the

pressure assuming that the valve is wide open.
 Example-5
Compute the pressure in the pipe at the location shown in Figure. The
flow rate through the pipe is 10,000 L/hr. The pipe is new commercial
steel pipe with an internal diameter of 50 mm. The liquid in the pipe
is crude oil with a density of 928 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 0.004 kg/m
s. The tank is vented to the atmosphere.
 Quiz 3
One accident mitigation procedure is called emergency material transfer, in which
the material is transported away from the accident site before it becomes involved.
We plan on mitigating a crude oil tank fire scenario by pumping the tank empty in 1
hr total time. The crude oil storage tank is 30 m in diameter, and the crude oil is
typically at a level of 9 m. The transfer will be accomplished by pumping the crude
oil through a 200-mm (internal diameter) new commercial steel pipe to another
tank 40 m in diameter and 10 m high. The pipeline represents 50 m of equivalent
pipe.
a. Estimate the minimum pump size (in HP) required to pump the entire tank
empty in 1 hr. Assume a pump efficiency of 80%.
b. If a 100-HP pump (80% efficient) is available, how long will it take to empty
the tank?
c. What conclusions can be drawn about the viability of this approach?
The density of the crude oil is 928 kg/m3 with a viscosity of 0.004 kg/m s.
 SOURCE MODELS
 For flowing liquids the Kinetic energy changes
negligible and density is constant.
 For flowing gases it is not constant
SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
From Bernoulli’s momentum balance equation

Eqn 1

Where  heat capacity ratio= Cp/Cv

Substitute ρ value in Eqn 1 and find u
 SOURCE MODELS
Using continuity equation
 SOURCE MODELS
For many safety studies the maximum flow rate of
vapor is required.
Differentiate the eqn w.r.t P/P0 and equal to zero

Pchoked is the maximum downstream pressure

resulting in maximum flow thro pipe or hole.
At Pchoked
1. Velocity will be in sonic.
2. Velocity and mass flow rate cannot be increased
further by reducing the downstream pressure.
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
Adiabatic flow

Mechanical Energy Balance

 SOURCE MODELS
Total energy balance for temperature change
 SOURCE MODELS

Equations 4-59 and 4-60 are converted to a more convenient and useful form
by replacing the Mach numbers with temperatures and pressures, using
Equations 4-56 through 4-58:
 SOURCE MODELS
For long pipe or for large pressure difference: velocity of the gas approach the
sonic velocity

For choked flow Equations 4-56 through 4-60 are simplified by setting Ma 2 = 1.0
 SOURCE MODELS
For most problems involving choked adiabatic flows the pipe
length (L), inside diameter (d), and upstream pressure (P1) and
temperature (T1) are known.
To compute the mass flux G, the procedure is as follows:
 Determine the Fanning friction factor f using Equation 4-34.
This assumes fully developed turbulent flow at high Reynolds
numbers. This assumption can be checked later but is normally
valid.
 Determine Ma1 from Equation 4-67.
 Determine the mass flux G choked from Equation 4-66.
 Determine P choked from Equation 4-64 to confirm operation
at choked conditions.
 Equations 4-63 through 4-67 for adiabatic pipe flow can be
modified to use the 2-K method discussed previously by
substituting Σ Kf for 4fL/d.
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
SOURCE MODELS
 SOURCE MODELS
Isothermal Flows

Mechanical Energy Balance

 SOURCE MODELS

More convenient form

A typical problem is to determine the mass flux G given the pipe

length (L), inside diameter (d), and upstream and downstream
pressures (P1 and P2). The procedure is :
1. Determine the Fanning friction factor f assuming fully developed
turbulent flow at high Reynolds numbers.
2. Compute the mass flux G from the previous equation.
 SOURCE
For choked condition:
MODELS

For most typical L, d, P1, and T are known. The mass flux G is determined by:
1. Determine the Fanning friction assuming fully developed turbulent flow at
high Reynolds numbers.
2. 2. Determine Ma1 from previous Equation
3. Determine the mass flux G from Equation 4-82.
 SOURCE MODELS
The vapor space above liquid ethylene oxide (EO) in storage tanks must be purged
of oxygen and then padded with 81-psig nitrogen to prevent explosion. The
nitrogen in a particular facility is supplied from a 200-psig source. It is regulated to
81 psig and supplied to the storage vessel through 33 ft of new commercial steel
pipe with an internal diameter of 1.049 in. In the event of a failure of the nitrogen
regulator, the vessel will be exposed to the full 200-psig pressure from the nitrogen
source. This will exceed the pressure rating of the storage vessel. To prevent
rupture of the storage vessel, it must be equipped with a relief device to vent this
nitrogen. Determine the required minimum mass flow rate of nitrogen through the
relief device to prevent the pressure from rising within the tank in the event of a
regulator failure.
Determine the mass flow rate assuming
(a) an orifice with a throat diameter equal to the pipe diameter,
(b) an adiabatic pipe, and
(c) an isothermal pipe.
Decide which result most closely corresponds to the real situation. Which mass
flow rate should be used?
 SOURCE MODELS
Flashing Liquids
If the tank or pipe develops a leak where, liquid stored
under pressure above normal BP, the liquid will partially
flash into vapor, sometimes explosively.
 SOURCE MODELS
Flashing is so rapid that the process is adiabatic.

The excess energy contained in the superheated

liquid vaporizes the liquid and lowers the T to new BP.

Where,
m-mass flow rate ; Cp –heat capacity of liquid;
To –Temp of liquid before depressurization.
Tb- depressurized BP of liquid
 SOURCE MODELS
Fraction of the liquid vaporized is

The change in Liquid mass m resulting from change in

temperature T is

Fraction of the liquid vaporized is

 SOURCE MODELS
The liquid stored at a pressure higher than the saturation
vapor pressure, mass flow rate is
 SOURCE MODELS
Liquid Pool Evaporation or boiling
Evaporation of a volatile from pool of liquid is given by

Heat is transferred by
 from the ground by conduction
 from the air by conduction and convection
 by radiation from the sun
Heat transfer from the ground is modeled with 1D heat
conduction.