7.
9 Solid Solution Strengthening
Another technique to strengthen and
harden metals is alloying
Adding impurity atoms that go into either
substitutional or interstitial solid solution
High-purity metals are almost always softer
and weaker
Fig 7.16 shows the effect of alloying nickel
in copper
1
2
Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity
A C
B D
Impurity generates local stress at A and Impurity generates local stress at C and
B that opposes dislocation motion to the D that opposes dislocation motion to the
right. right.
3
Alloys are stronger than pure metals
Impurity atoms impose lattice strain on
surrounding host atoms
Lattice strain field interaction between dislocation
and impurity atoms result
dislocation movement is restricted
An impurity atom that is smaller than a host atom
substitution results tensile strains on the surrounding
crystal lattice ( Fig 7.17a)
Larger substitutional atom imposes compressive
strains in its vacinity (Fig 7.18a)
4
5
Solute atoms tend to diffuse to and segregate around
dislocations reduce strain energy to cancel some lattice
strain surrounding a dislocation
To accomplish this,
a smaller impurity atom is located where its tensile strain will
partially nullify some of the dislocation’s compressive strain
A larger atom to nullify tensile strain of dislocation
Figure 7.17b and 7.18b
Resistance to slip is greater
Overall lattice strain must increase if dislocation is torn
away from them
Same strain interaction exist between atoms and
dislocation that are in motion during plastic deformation
greater applied stress is needed to initiate and continue
plastic deformation
6
7.10 Strain Hardening
Strain hardening a phenomenon whereby a
ductile material becomes harded and stronger as it is
plastically deformed.
Also known as work-hardening or cold working
Most metals strain harden at room temperature
Degree of plastic deformation is expressed as
percent cold work (%CW)
A0 Ad
%CW 100
A0
7
Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig. 11.8,
Callister 7e. roll
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container
die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao Ad
%CW x 100
Ao 8
Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.
Adapted from Fig. 4.6,
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy of
M.R. Plichta, Michigan
Technological
University.)
0.9 mm
9
Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density = unit volume
Carefully grown single crystal
ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
109-1010 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
105-106 mm-2
s
• Yield stress increases
s y1 large hardening
as rd increases: s y0 small hardening
e
10
Effects of Stress at Dislocations
Adapted from Fig. 7.5,
Callister 7e.
11
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.
12
Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2 rd2
%CW x 100 35.6%
2
ro D o =15.2mm D d =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800
500 600 40
300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
s y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American
Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 13
Why more stronger ?
On the average, dislocation-dislocation strain
interactions are repulsive
Dislocation density increases due to
Deformation or cold work
Dislocation multiplication
Formation of new dislocations
Net result motion of dislocation is hindered by the
presence of other dislocations higher imposed
stress is needed to deform a metal
14
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Plastic deformation of polycrystalline metal at
temperatures lower than its melting temperature produces
micro-structural and property changes
includes
1. A change in grain shape
2. Strain hardening
3. Increase in dislocation density
Some fraction of deformation energy (about 5%) stored in
metal as strain energy
Associated with tensile, compressive and shear zones
around newly created dislocations
Other properties (such as electrical conductivity and
corrosion resistance ) may be modified by plastic
deformation. 15
Modified Properties and structures due to plastic
deformation (cold work)
May revert back to the precold-worked states by
Annealing
Annealing is a heat treatment process
Restoration due to due different processes at
elevated temperatures
Recovery
Recrystallization
Above processes may be followed by grain growth.
16
7.11 Recovery
At elevated temperature
enhanced atomic diffusion
dislocation motion
some stored strain energy relieved
Recovery process Involves
Reduction in dislocation numbers
Dislocation configuration with low strain
energy
(similar to Fig 4.8)
Physical properties are recovered to their
precold-worked state
Electrical and thermal conductivities
17
7.12 Recrystallization
Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a
relatively high strain energy state.
Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free
and equiaxed grains having low dislocation densities as the
precold-worked state.
Difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material acts as the driving force to produce
new grain structure
New grains form as very small nuclei grow until completely
replace the parent material involves short-range diffusion
18
7.12 Recrystallization (Contd.)
Several stages of recrystallization
(a) cold-worked
(33%) grain
structure
(b) Initial stage of
recrystallization
after heating 3 s
at 580oC
19
7.12 Recrystallization (Contd.)
Several stages of recrystallization
(c) Partial
replacement of
cold-worked grains
by recrystallized
ones (4s at 580oC)
(d) complete
recrystallization
(8s at 580oC)
20
7.12 Recrystallization (Contd.)
Several stages of recrystallization
(e) Grain growth
after 15 min at
580oC
(d) Grain growth
after 10 min at
700oC
21
7.12 Recrystallization
During recrystallization, mechanical properties restored to
their precold-worked values
Metal becomes softer, weaker, yet ductile
Some heat treatments are designed to allow recrystallization
to occur these modifications in the mechanical characteristics.
Recrystallization depends on both time and temperature
Influence of time
The degree (or fraction ) of recrystallization increases with
time (Figure 7.21a-d)
22
Influence of temperature
Figure 7.22 shows
tensile strength and
ductility of a brass
alloy
Constant heat
treatment time of 1
hour
Grain structures at
various stages are
presented
schematically.
23
Recrystallization temperature
The temperature at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 hour.
Recrystallization temperature of brass alloy (Fig 7.22) is
about 450oC (850oF).
It is about 1/3 to ½ of absolute melting temperature
Depends on several factors, such as % cold work, purity of
alloy etc.
Effect of %CW
Increasing %CW enhances the rate of recrystallization
recrystallization temperature is lowered
Recrysttalization temperature approaches a constant or
limiting value at high deformation.
Critical degree of cold work
Below which no recrystallization
Ususally 2 – 20 % 24
25
Effect of alloying
Recrystallization proceeds more rapidly in pure metal than
in alloys alloying raises recrystallization temperature
For pure metal: normally it is 0.3(Melting temperature)
For alloys, it may run as high as 0.7(melting temperature)
Hot working : plastic deformation operations at temperatures
above the recrystallization temperature
Material remains relatively soft and ductile during
deformation
It does not strain harden
Large deformations possible
26
27
7.13 Grain growth
After recrystallization is
complete, the strain-free grains
will continue to grow if the metal
specimen is left at the elevated
temperature phenomenon is
known as grain growth.
It occurs by the migration of
grain boundaries
Boundary motion is just the
short-range diffusion of
atoms from one side of the
boundary to the other
Direction of boundary
movement and atomic motion
are opposite.
Schematic reprsentationin
Fig 7.24
28
For many polycrystalline materials, grain diameter (d)
varies with time as
dn – don = Kt
do :initial grain diameter at t=0
K, n: time-dependent constants
n is equal to greater than 2
Dependence of grain size on time and temperature is
shown in Fig 7.25
Brass alloy
At higher temperature, rapid growth due to
enhancement of diffusion rate
29
30
Mechanical properties at room temperature of a fine-
grained metal are usually superior (strength and
toughness) than coarse-grained ones.
If grain structure of a single phase alloy is coarser than
that desired
plastically deform
subject to recrystallization heat treatment
refine grain size
31
