APPLIED PHYSICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL OR PHYSICAL CULTURAL
ROUTE TO STUDY PHYSICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
Man is a product of organic evolution and he achieved
his humanity at a reasonably recent date in geological
time.
The discipline that is committed with the study of man
from this point of view is physical anthropology, and it
may perhaps be claimed that, of all the subdivisions of
anthropological science, physical anthropology is the
most fundamental
Physical anthropologists are in position to precisely
describe human physical structure both past and
present and also explore how function and behavior are
integrated into the environment in which human beings
live.
WHAT IS?
Biological anthropology, also known as physical
anthropology, is a scientific discipline concerned with
the biological and behavioral aspects of human
beings, their related non-human primates’ evolution
and their extinct hominid ancestor, the biological
variability and its significance.
It is a sub discipline of anthropology that provides a
biological perspective to the systematic study of
human beings
Examining the biological variations between the
populations of any species explains evolutionary
process that gives valuable information as what could
be the mechanism of genetic change in group
overtime- a domain of physical anthropology.
DEFINITION
Paul Broca defines it as natural history of the genus
Homo and more concretely as the science whose
objective is the study of humanity as a whole and in
relationship to the rest of the nature
Herskovits identifies that physical anthropologists
study such matters as the nature of racial differences;
the inheritance of bodily traits; the growth,
development and decay of human organism; the
influence of natural environment on man.
SCOPE
Globally the scope of physical anthropology is best
identified within the framework of the tradition
followed in the different stages of its development.
These traditions may be called “old or classical”
physical anthropology and “New or Analytical”
physical anthropology.
The major concern of human evolution is to trace the
ancestral form and to understand the course of
evolutionary processes and mechanism involved in the
making of the erect walking, bipedal, brainy creature
who is a tool maker
The stage of evolution particularly the ‘pre-human’
history of man to his present form is the foundation of
primatology apart from anatomy, physiology and
ethnology.
All living populations of the world had common
ancestor irrespective of theory morphmetric variation.
This necessitates contribution from primatology,
primate paleontology, Palaeo anthropology and
comparative anatomy.
Human genetics a significant part of physical
anthropology has witnessed incredible growth.
Human population genetics use mating pattern as a
method that assist in the estimate of inflow and outflow
of genes that are accountable for evolution.
Eugenics forms a fundamental part of physical
anthropology responsible towards the progress of
populations.
Recent years have witnessed physical anthropology
playing irrefutable service in the field of dentistry,
medicine and industrial research
The scope of physical anthropology in the field of
forensic science is tremendous.
The various branches of physical anthropology which
assists a forensic scientist in arriving at conclusion are
dermatoglyphics, osteology, osteometry, and serology;
somatic and genetic characteristics contributing
towards the determination of age and sex.
Kinanthropometry uses somatological knowledge in
interpreting the body types for different sports or even
in relation to specific disease
Domains of Applied Physical Anthropology
The measurement technique used by applied physical
anthropologists is termed as ‘Anthropometry’.
Hansen and Cornog, 1958 have described anthropometry as
“the theory and practice of taking bodily dimensions by
suitable instruments, and the orderly treatment of the
resulting data”.
The technique is widely used in human engineering .
It is divided into four areas,viz.,
-somatometry (measurement of both living and dead body),
- osteometry (measurement of the skeleton/bones), -
craniometry (measurement of the skull) and
-cephalometry (measurement of the head and face).
These measurements gives information about the
proportion among different limbs, population variation
due to age(Physical growth) , physique and its relation
to sports (kinanthropometry),nutritional status, etc.
They are employed in measuring military personnel for
designing railroads, airplane seats and space suits.
It is divided into dynamic and static measurements.
Static measurements are used to provide space and
clearance around the body of fit people.
In applied anthropometry, dynamic measurements are
more important because the measurements are done
when the body move while working and objects are
designed based on this.
ANTHROPOMETRICS
Anthropometrics is the measurement of the
dimension of the body or any other physical
characteristics. It deals with information about human
body size, shape and plays an important role in
industrial design, clothing design, ergonomics and
architecture.
Alarmed with the appliance of ergonomics to the
human form and are used to justify the user or target
range for your product.
TYPES OF ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
1. Structural Anthropometric Data
2. Functional Anthropometric Data
STRUCTURAL ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA : Structural anthropometric data are
measurements of the bodily dimensions of subjects in fixed (static) positions.
EXAMPLES To specify furniture dimensions.
To determine ranges of clothing sizes.
FUNCTIONAL ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA : Functional anthropometric data
are taken under conditions in which the body is engaged in some physical
activities.
EXAMPLES Design of crane cabs
Design of vehicle interiors
USES OF ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA : To fit the task to the person. To avoid
physical mismatches between dimensions of equipment and products and the
corresponding user. To design for variability in people and not for the
average.
Ergonomics
The study of man in relation to his working
environment is termed as ergonomics.
Physical anthropologists provide the anthropometric
measurements to create a smooth interface with the
product and the varied dimensions of the human body.
Corner and Gordon, 1996 have rightly said that
products from toothbrushes to luxury sedans are
touching ergonomic design
The limb proportions and the size of the body vary in
different populations .
Age, gender, nature of work and place of operation
should be taken into account for designing the item.
Sitting is the most frequent body posture: we sit at
work, at school, in the car, on the bus, on the train, at
home in front of TV, to eat, to rest and so on.
A seat should take the weight off your feet in order to
lessen stress on your legs. It should provide some
postural stability while you work or relax.
The seat should also fit in with other furniture and
equipment and not get in the way of what you are
doing.
TYPES OF SEATS
Seats for working e.g. office chairs, school chairs,
kneeling chairs, perching stools.
Seats for leisure e.g. bar stools, dining chairs, easy
chairs, cinema seats.
Seats for travel e.g. car seats, aircraft seats.
Specialised seats e.g. wheelchair seats, racing car seats.
What makes a seat comfortable?
Generally, seats should allow your body to be comfortable and not
restricted.
The seat height should not be so high so that your legs are left
dangling! This would mean that there would be pressure on the soft
tissues under your thighs. This pressure interferes with the return of
blood from the lower limbs, which may cause tingling and numbness
in the thighs due to pressure on blood vessels and nerves.
The seat depth should allow clearance at the back of your knees in
order to prevent pressure on the network of blood vessels and nerves.
The seat back and angle should support the natural curves
of your spine (in particular your lower back).
The main weight bearing should be taken by the ischial
tuberosities (the bony parts of your bottom) and the top
half of the thighs.
In addition, a chair should enable you to change posture at
intervals, ensuring that different groups of muscles can be
used for support, and that no particular group of muscles
gets tired. The consequences of poor seating are
discomfort, fatigue and inefficiency in what you are doing.
When designing any seating arrangements there are some basic ergonomic design
principles that should be considered in order for the design concept to be
successful. Some of the basic principles are:
· Lumbar Support
· Armrest Support
· Seat Pan Depth
· Seat Recline
Lumbar Support
The spine that humans possess has unique shape that is as specific to the body as
a fingerprint. The spines vary from person to person inn both variations in the
curvature and the length. The curvature and the length will vary based on the
type of body structure that they are developing. The rear of the seat will play a
critical role in supporting the structure of the spine throughout of the duration of
seating and must be able to accommodate for the 2 cm variation across the spine
throughout the day. The correct design of a lumbar support will help to ensure
that the seating is comfortable and prevent injuries.
Armrest Support
The arms on a human body equate to 10.2% of the total body mass. As
a result there will be considerable pressure placed upon other muscles
in the body in order to support them. By supporting arm weight stress
shall be relieved from the spine. If an arm rest is not able to adjust a
form of contact stress will be created along specific areas along the
elbow and forearm and increase the risks of potential injuries.
Seat Pan Depth
Chairs that have a fixed seat pan limit the amount of users that are
able to use the seat with comfort and ease. This is because the taller
the person is the deeper the seat needs to be in order to accommodate
the extra surface area. The depth of the seat pan if not designed
correctly can cause pressure behind a person’s knees which can lead
to discomfort and could prevent the person from utilising full use of
the back support. Also a correct seat pan depth can be used to prevent
contract pressure underneath the user’s thighs.
Seat Recline
When a person is reclined at certain angles blood
flows across the spinal area so that all of the pressure
can be relieved. If a chair has a recline angle of
20degrees the stress of the spinal discs becomes
reduced by up to 40%.
Kinanthropometry or Anthropology of
sports
Physical anthropological methods are utilized in sports as
relation between body build, physique etc., are seen with
activities of sports.
One’s physical capacity determined by heredity and health
is called potential physical capacity whereas the capacity
developed through physical exercise is termed as acquired
capacity.
Exercise can reduce or increase the quantity of fat.
Strength, endurance, speed of contraction and elasticity of a
muscle are directly associated with sport activities.
Right kind of physical activities can help in the development
of vitality, vigor, skill and stamina necessary for sports.
In maximizing the athlete’s potential, several things need to be done. This is
to determine the appropriate nutrition for athletes, how the type of exercise
is suitable for athletes, and the intensity of training for athletes. Some of the
above can be known by taking anthropometric measurements.
What anthropometric measurements do athletes need to do?
Anthropometric measurements discuss or be able to analyze the
development of body shape and its relationship with health, immunity of a
disease, attitude, physical abilities, and personality quality.
Here are some anthropometric measurements that are often done such as:
Height Measurement
Weight calculation
Measurement of the length of body parts such as abdominal, arm length,
leg length, calf length and so on
Body area measurements (body composition) such as Fat, Bone, Muscle,
and Body Organ Thickness
Around the body consists of chest, waist, hips, calves, and others
IMPORTANCE OF MEEASUREMENTS AND TESTS
1.Of Athletes:
On the basis of skill testing
Evaluation of the measurements
2. Individual Game Classification of athletes :
Classification based on gender, age, body weight, height, interest and physical
fitness 3. To study the Development of Athlete : Development of athlete in respect
to their neuro – muscular, social, interpretive, emotional development etc.
Somato types or Body types : Somato type is the word used by the famous
psychologist William Sheldon to describe a body-type using his method of
classifying the human physique.
William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American psychologist who devoted his life
to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments.
Somato types refer to the underlying physique and are not changed by overeating
or training. • In the 1940s, Sheldon developed a theory that there are three basic
body types, or somato types.
If we think of a race competition, then it is expected
that the brachycephalic (short legs, long trunk) are
expected to win the race due to their stronger heart
and larger lung when resistance is taken into account.
Macroskelic (long legs and a short trunk) type has a
chance of winning. Bar exercise is an event of
gymnastics and it should be adjusted to the height of
the head or chest to derive the benefits.
Sport physiologists use many of the body
measurement techniques developed by physical
anthropologists.
Athletes’ bodies are measured and the different body
types are correlated with particular sports.
Anthropology of sports study sport in a systematic manner
from a cross-cultural perspective. Tribal people and their
sports are studied which gives an understanding of how
their way of playing games help in developing their
physique and conduct in sports.
Since 1928, physical anthropology of the Olympic athletes
has been interestingly studied. Kohlraush measured
approximately 300 athletes at Amsterdam. 1948 United
States Olympic Games was studied by Cureton. Their
findings concluded that differences were observed in age,
weight and height among the various events .Tanner found
out that there was marked difference in the somatotypes of
the athletes and the general population.
Somatotypes or Bodytypes • He settled on three extreme
types(based on the three tissue layers):
Endoderm(Fat/Round),
Mesoderm(Muscular/Square)
Ectoderm ( Thin/Linear )
Each associated with personality characteristics, representing a
correlation between physique and
Physical Anthropology And Fashion
A new field of anthropology termed as ‘Fashion
anthropology’ has emerged.
Physical anthropologists used their anthropometric
methods to give information about the different size
and shape of the body to the cloth
manufacturers for them to adjust the level required to
fit the customers.
Footwear used in varied occasions are also designed
based on the measurement of the size and shape of the
foot of different ethnic population
The provision of clothing for masses of people depends
on anthropometry.
Substantial sums have been saved because physical
anthropologists measured a small sample of the
population in a particular area and adjusted the clothing
tariffs to the predicted distribution of bodily sizes and
shapes.
Depending upon body size, clothing for the armed forces
is developed.
Clothing, bag etc., are designed based on the principle
that a person is capable of carrying weight to a certain
level if the weight is distributed all over the parts of the
body. This way the individual can lost less energy and
work more judiciously.
Physical anthropology and Defense
In the army the data of anthropological investigations
are extensively used in the Western countries. The
anthropometric surveys on the military personnel are
considered essential to get their body measurements
which are used to meet various demands.
In Mexico, the National Military Academy has been
doing effective work in this line since 1951. Here the
results of biometric investigations are extensively used
in the selection of cadets.
The Air Forces very often utilize the anthropometric
data in solving spatial problems in aircraft and also in
improving flight clothing.
The anthropometry is used to design the cockpit as
per body size, gun-tur-rets, seats for the passenger’s
aircraft, designing of tank and gun-sight, pressure
suits and helmets, anti-gravitational suits and so on.
The quartermaster Corps is taking the help of
anthropometry for making better fitted and efficient
clothing. It emphasizes on finding out the relationship
between clothing sizes and body measurements so
that the clothes may fit the good number of military
personnel with minimum or no alteration.
Physical anthropology and automobile
During recent period much emphasis is being laid to
design the seats and thereby making the sitting
arrangements more comfortable.
It has been understood that a close correlation exists
between health and good posture.
.If a seat creates troubles in keeping the body in a
good posture, it results in various disabilities in
skeletal, muscular and other organic parts of the body.
On the other hand the correctness in sitting posture
enhances alertness and endurance as well as
improvement in circulation and respiration of the
persons concerned.
Body measurements in characteristic working position
cans thus improve the design of seats in offices,
educational institutions, in public vehicles. Therefore
the designers of these sitting arrangements are in the
specific necessity to have a knowledge regarding
various anthropometrical perspectives.
Modern furniture designers in many countries utilize
the results of anthropometrical studies to plan their
activities in a scientific way.
Using anthropometric data of people, applied physical
anthropologist Hooton conducted research in the
seating alignment in trains to make more comfortable
seats. He found out that certain bad sitting
arrangements result in bad posture, skeletal, muscular
and other disabilities whereas good sitting
arrangements enhanced improved circulation,
respiration and corrected posture.
Through the analysis of variations in the
anthropometric body measurements, train seats were
redesigned. Based on this observation, seats for
educational institutes, offices and vehicles were
designed.
