DR.

PETER MICHAEL OWINY

[email protected]
 Variable - a characteristic that takes on
different values/conditions for different
individuals.
 It is anything that varies/takes on more
than one form.
 Variables should have two distinct
characteristics
• Should be mutually exclusive
• Should be exhaustive
 A variable must have dimensions and
dimensions should have indicators e.g.
Variable Dimension Attributes
1. Sex male Biological indicators
Female
2. Employment status Employed/unemployed Income /terms of
employment
3. Management style autocratic Giving
/democratic/laissez- orders/consultation/
faire minimal supervision
4. Reward -Monetary The amount of money
management rewards paid
-Non-monetary Timeliness of payment
rewards No of employees
recognized
5. Marital status  Married Years in marriage .e.tc.
 Single
 Others
 Research is the study of the relationship
between variables.
 Therefore, there must be at least one
variable in a qualitative research or two
variables in a quantitative research study
(or there is no relationship to study).
 The main variables i.e. the Dependent
variable and the Independent variable
should always be clearly stated in the
topic/title and in the statement of the
problem.
 Independent Variable - a variable that affects the
dependent variable under study and is included in the
research design so that its effects can be determined.
(Also known as a predictor variable in certain types of
research.)
 They help to explain/account of the variation in the
dependent variable.
 They are the presumed causes of the dependent
variable .
 Independent variables can be manipulated to cause a
change in dependent. E.g. a topic like “The effect of
motivation on the performance of academic staff at
UMI’’
 Motivation is the independent variable which can be
manipulated to affect the performance of workers
 Dependent Variable - a variable being affected or
assumed to be affected by the independent variable
and does not include all the specific information.
 The dependent variable is the variable of interest.
 It is the one that causes the research to be
inquisitive enough to carry out the research
 It is the variable used to measure the effects of the
independent variables
 It is also known as an outcome variable in certain
types of research.
 Moderator/Moderating Variable - a variable that
may or may not be controlled, but has an effect on
the research situation. A determinant factor of a
relationship btn IV and DV
 Is a variable that can strengthen, diminish, negate,
or otherwise alter the association between
independent and dependent variables.
 Moderating variables can also change the direction
of this relationship.
 This variable helps to moderate the relationship
between the independent and dependent variable.
E.g. in the topic Motivation and Performance of
Academic staff at UMI”, Management style may be
a moderating variable.
 It explains the relationship between two other
variables, usually the independent (predictor)
variable, which is the variable the researcher
controls, and the dependent (outcome)
variable, which is the variable that is
observed based on changes in the
independent
 Intervening Variables - a variable whose
existence is inferred, but which cannot be
manipulated or directly measured. Also known
as nuisance variables, mediator variables, or
confounding variables, or extraneous variables
 This variable may interfere with the experiment
if not taken into consideration. E.g You may be
wanting to study about Monitoring practices
and Service delivery in Organizations.
Therefore failure to specify whether public or
private organization may bring problem in
providing valid outcomes of the study
Extraneous Variables are undesirable
variables that influence the relationship
between the variables that an experimenter is
examining. E.g performance of the academic
staff at UMI maybe influenced by the desire
to please a spouse.
Another way to think of this, is that these are

variables that influence the outcome of an

experiment, though they are not the variables
that are actually of interest.
 A major goal in research design is to
decrease or control the influence of
extraneous variables as much as possible.
 These variables are undesirable because they

add error to an experiment.

 Operationalization is the process of strictly
defining variables into measurable factors. 
 The researcher should state how the variables
will be measured in a particular study.
 This will guide the researcher on what type of
data to collect and how the variables can be
measured
◦ E.g. Income can be operationally defined as the amount
of money earned by the household through salary per
month
◦ Management as planning, organizing controlling
coordinating
◦ Rewards as monetary and non monetary e.t.c
Concept Examples of operationalization
Overconfiden •The difference between how well people think
ce they did on a test and how well they actually
did (overestimation).
•The difference between where people rank
themselves compared to others and where they
actually rank (overplacement).
Creativity •The number of uses for an object (e.g., a
paperclip) that participants can come up with in 3
minutes.
•Average ratings of the originality of uses of an
object that participants come up with in 3 minutes.
Perceptio •Physiological responses of higher sweat gland
activity and increased heart rate when presented
n of with threatening images.
threat •Participants’ reaction times after being presented
with threatening images.
 Identify the main concepts you are interested
in studying.
 Choose a variable to represent each of the

concepts.
 Select indicators for each of your variables.
 Helps in measuring variables across different
contexts
 Empiricism;Scientific research is based on

observable and measurable findings.

Operational definitions break down intangible
concepts into recordable characteristics.
 Objectivity; a standardized approach for
collecting data leaves little room for
subjective or biased personal interpretations
of observations.
 Reliability; a good operationalization can be
used consistently by other researchers. If
other people measure the same thing using
your operational definition, they should all
get the same results.
 Under determination; Many concepts vary
across different time periods and social
settings. For example, poverty is a worldwide
phenomenon, but the exact income-level that
determines poverty can differ significantly
across countries.
 Reductiveness; Operational definitions can

easily miss meaningful and subjective

perceptions of concepts by trying to reduce
complex concepts to numbers.
 Lack of universality; Context-specific
operationalization help preserve real-life
experiences,but make it hard to compare
studies if the measures differ significantly.
For example, corruption can be
operationalized in a wide range of ways (e.g.,
perceptions of corrupt business practices, or
frequency of bribe requests from public
officials), but the measures may not
consistently reflect the same concept.
 A theory is set of systematically tested and
logically interpreted prepositions that have
been developed through research and that
explains social phenomena.
 A theory helps the researcher to explain,

describe, understand or even predict some

phenomena in a systematic manner
 Simply put it: An explanation of how
something occurs.
 A theory provides the basis for establishing
the hypotheses to be tested in the study.
 A good theory can logically be broken down
into a set of hypotheses which can be
tested/verified through experiments or
observations.
 A good theory is developed in a way that
generalizations can be tested
 A theoretical framework is the guiding map
on which the entire research is based
 The theoretical framework is the structure
that can hold or support a theory of a
research study.
 From the theoretical framework the
researcher develops testable hypotheses to
examine and test whether the theoretical
framework is valid
 It is the guiding map on which the entire
research is based
 From the theoretical framework, study
variables are identified and relationships
among them are hypothesized.
 When one starts research with a theory, its
confirmation or non confirmation is a
contribution towards new knowledge.
 Theories can also be used to discuss and
interpreted the findings of the research
1.Examine the proposal title and research
problem. The research problem anchors your
entire study and forms the basis from which
you construct your theoretical framework.
2.Brainstorm on what you consider to be the
key variables in your research. Answer the
question, what factors contribute to the
presumed effect?
3.Review related literature to find answers to
your research question.
4. List  the constructs and variables that might
be relevant to your study. Group these variables
into independent and dependent categories.
5. Review the key theories that are introduced
to you in your course readings and choose the
theory or theories that can best explain the
relationships between the key variables in your
study
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of
this theory and point out their relevance to your
research.
 A conceptual framework is a written or visual
representation of an expected relationship
between variables.
 The conceptual framework is generally
developed based on a literature review of
existing studies and theories about the topic.
 The concepts are presented as a model where
research variables and the relationship between
them are translated into a visual picture to
illustrate the interconnections between the
independent, extraneous and dependent
variables.
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Motivation (Independent Variable) performance: (Dependent
Variable)
Extrinsic Motivation Performance
•Basic salary •Timeliness
•Allowances •Customer care
•Overtime payment •Performance reports
Intrinsic motivation
•Love for the job
•Career development
•Training

Moderating Variable)
Management style
Participatory style
Authoritative style

Source: Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation

 Identifies and labels relevant variables
 Explains relationships (conceptualized)
between variables.
 Explain clearly, logically why such
relationships should be expected.
 A schematic diagram should be drawn to the
reader so as to visualise the theorised
relationships.
 Advantages Disadvantages
 Helps understand the  May over simplify
research project
the problem
 Explains the research ideas
 May not be well
and relationships
 Guides the research process
suited to
application.
 Provide the conceptual and
methodological tools for  Not applicable to
formulating hypotheses and qualitative
theories studies
 Identify a research area of your interest and do the following:
 Generate a title showing the dependent and independent
variable
 Formulate a problem statement
 From the problem statement formulated generate the following;
◦ the general objectives of such a study
◦ the specific objectives
◦ the research questions and hypotheses
◦ Come up with a theory and show how you will use it to inform
your study
◦ Draw the conceptual framework showing the independent
variables, dependent variables ,moderating/intervening
variables

END OF PRESENTATION- THANKS