Chapter 1

Data Communication and Computer

Networking
Concept of network communication
Network communication
 Examples of network communication:
 A. Two computers connected with a network cable form

the simplest network.

 B. A small network consists of a router (or switch) and

multiple computers. In such a network, files can be

freely transferred between every two computers through
the router or switch.
 C. To download a file from a website, a computer must

first access the Internet.

 • The Internet is the largest computer network in the

world.
 Information Transfer Process
 • Comparison between express delivery (object transfer) and
network communication:
 • Objects to be delivered by express delivery:
▫ The application generates the information (or data) to be delivered.
 • The objects are packaged and attached with a delivery form
containing the name and address of the consignee.
 ▫ The application packs the data into the original "data payload",
and adds the "header" and "tail" to form a packet. The important
information in the packet is the address information of the receiver,
that is, the "destination address".
 ▫ The process of adding some new information segments to an
information unit to form a new information unit is called
encapsulation.
 Information Transfer Process
 The package is sent to the distribution center, where
packages are sorted based on the destination addresses and
the packages destined for the same city are placed on the
same plane.
◦ The packet reaches the gateway through the network cable. After
receiving the packet, the gateway decapsulates the packet, reads the
destination address, and then re-encapsulates the packet. Then, the
gateway sends the packet to a router based on the destination
address. After being transmitted through the gateway and router, the
packet leaves the local network and enters the Internet for
transmission.
◦ The network cable functions similarly as the highway. The network
cable is the medium for information transfer
Networking
 Networking—computers communicate with each other
via networks.
 Computer network—a communication system for

connecting computers using a single transmission

technology.
A Simplified Network Model
COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
 Sender: A sender is a computer or any such device
which is capable of sending data over a network.
 It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkietalkie,
video recording device, etc.
 Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device
which is capable of receiving data from the network.
 It can be any computer, printer, laptop, mobile phone,
television, etc.
 In computer communication, the sender and receiver are
known as nodes in a network.
 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
 Message: It is the data or information that needs to be
exchanged between the sender and the receiver.
 Messages can be in the form of text, number, image, audio,
video, multimedia, etc.
 Communication media: It is the path through which the
message travels between source and destination.
 It is also called medium or link which is either wired or
wireless. For example, a television cable, telephone cable,
ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc.
 Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by
the communicating parties in order to have successful and
reliable data communication.
Transmission Impairments
 Transmission impairment occurs when the received
signal is different from the transmitted signal
 There are various causes of transmission impairments

1. Noise
2. Distortion
3. Attenuation
 Noise
 Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion

as any unwanted signal gets added to the transmitted

signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets
modified and at the receiver side it is difficult to
remove the unwanted noise signal. 
Transmission Impairments
 Distortion
 Distortion means that the signal changes its form or

shape. Distortion can occur in a composite signal made

of different frequencies.
 Each signal component has its own propagation speed

through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in

arriving at the final destination.
 The three main reasons for signal distortion in

transmission impairment are environmental parameters,

properties of the transmission medium, and distance
between the transmission end and receiving end
 Transmission Impairments
 Attenuation
 Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by

which the received signal will be difficult to receive at the

receiver end.
 This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by

environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance

 The signal strength decreases as it tries to overcome the

resistance imposed.
 Modes of Data transmission
 The data transmission modes can be characterized in
the following three types based on the direction of
exchange of information.
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full Duplex
 Modes of Data transmission
 The data transmission modes can be characterized in
the following three types based on the direction of
exchange of information.
 1. Simplex
 Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can
flow only in one direction, i.e., the communication is
unidirectional. 
 In this mode, a sender can only send data but can not receive it.
Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but can not send it.
 For Example, Radio and TV transmission, keyboard, mouse,
etc.
 Modes of Data transmission
 Following are the advantages of using a Simplex
transmission mode:
 It utilizes the full capacity of the communication channel
during data transmission.
 It has the least or no data traffic issues as data flows only in
one direction.
 Following are the disadvantages of using a Simplex
transmission mode:
 It is unidirectional in nature having no inter-communication
between devices.
 There is no mechanism for information to be transmitted back
to the sender(No mechanism for acknowledgement).
 Modes of Data transmission
 2. Half-Duplex
 Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the

data can flow in both directions but in one direction at a

time. It is also referred to as Semi-Duplex. 
 In other words, each station can both transmit and receive

the data but not at the same time.

 When one device is sending the other can only receive and

vice-versa.
 For Example, Walkie-Talkie, Internet Browsers, etc.
 Modes of Data transmission
 Following are the advantages of using a half-duplex
transmission mode:
 It facilitates the optimum use of the communication channel.
 It provides two-way communication.
 Following are the disadvantages of using a half-duplex
transmission mode:
 The two-way communication can not be established
simultaneously at the same time.
 Delay in transmission may occur as only one way communication
can be possible at a time.
 Modes of Data transmission
 3. Full-Duplex
 Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the

data can flow in both directions at the same time.

 It is bi-directional in nature. 
 It is two-way communication in which both the stations

can transmit and receive the data simultaneously.

 For Example, a Telephone Network, in which both the

persons can talk and listen to each other simultaneously.

 Modes of Data transmission
 Following are the advantages of using a full-duplex
transmission mode:
 The two-way communication can be carried out simultaneously in
both directions.
 It is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
 Following are the disadvantages of using a half-duplex
transmission mode:
 The capacity of the communication channel is divided into two
parts. Also, no dedicated path exists for data transfer.
 It has improper channel bandwidth utilization as there exist two
separate paths for two communicating devices.
 Modes of Data transmission

The data transmission modes can be characterized in the

following two types based on the synchronization
between the transmitter and the receiver:
1. Synchronous
2. Asynchronous
 Modes of Data transmission
 1. Synchronous
 The Synchronous transmission mode is a mode of
communication in which the bits are sent one after another
without any start/stop bits or gaps between them. 
 Actually, both the sender and receiver are paced by the same
system clock. In this way, synchronization is achieved.
 In a Synchronous mode of data transmission, bytes are
transmitted as blocks in a continuous stream of bits. Since
there is no start and stop bits in the message block.
 The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them in
eight bits unit. The receiver continuously receives the
information at the same rate that the transmitter has sent it.
 Modes of Data transmission
 For Example, communication in CPU, RAM, etc.
 Following are the advantages of using a Synchronous

transmission mode:
 Transmission speed is fast as there is no gap between the data
bits.
 Following are the disadvantages of using a
Synchronous transmission mode:
 It is very expensive.
 Modes of Data transmission
 2. Asynchronous
 The Asynchronous transmission mode is a mode of

communication in which a start and the stop bit is

introduced in the message during transmission. 
 The start and stop bits ensure that the data is transmitted

correctly from the sender to the receiver.

 Generally, the start bit is '0' and the end bit is '1'.
 The time duration between each character is the same

and synchronized.
 The messages are sent at irregular intervals and only one

data byte can be sent at a time.

 Modes of Data transmission
 For Example, Data input from a keyboard to the
computer.
 Following are the advantages of using an

Asynchronous transmission mode:

1. It is a cheap and effective mode of transmission.
2. Data transmission accuracy is high due to the presence of
start and stop bits.
 Following are the disadvantages of using an
Asynchronous transmission mode:
1. The data transmission can be slower due to the gaps present
between different blocks of data.
Network Topology
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Fully connected topology
 Combined topology
Star network topology
 All nodes are connected through a central node.
 Advantages: New nodes can be easily added to the

network. Communication data must be forwarded by

the central node, which facilitates network monitoring.
 Disadvantages: Faults on the central node affect the

communication of the entire network.

Bus network topology
 All nodes are connected through a bus (coaxial cable
for example).
 Advantages: The installation is simple and cable

resources are saved. Generally, the failure of a node

does not affect the communication of the entire
network.
 Disadvantages: A bus fault affects the communication

of the entire network. The information sent by a node

can be received by all other nodes, resulting in low
security.
Ring network topology
 All nodes are connected to form a closed ring.
 Advantages: Cables resources are saved.
 Disadvantages: It is difficult to add new nodes. The

original ring must be interrupted before new nodes are

inserted to form a new ring.
Mesh topology
 Mesh topology is a type of network topology in which
all devices In the network are interconnected. 
Advantages Disadvantages

1. The addition of a new 1. Initial setup is very

device is very easy. difficult.

2. High level of traffic is 2. Implementing post for

manageable by it after the mesh topology
completion of the setup. comparatively higher
Protocols
 Definition – all parties involved in a
communication must agree in a set of rules to be
used when exchanging messages. Thus, the set of
rules which both the sender and the receiver all
comply with is called protocol.
 A protocol specifies the message format,
meanings, and the procedures is known as a
communication protocol.
 A communication application doesn’t
communicate with the communication hardware
directly.
Key Elements of a Protocol
 Syntax
◦ Data formats
◦ Signal levels
 Semantics
◦ Control information
◦ Error handling
Why Protocols?
 Used for communications between entities in a
system
 Must speak the same language
 Entities
◦ User applications
◦ e-mail facilities
◦ terminals
 Systems
◦ Computer
◦ Terminal
◦ Remote sensor
 Communication Reference
Models
• In summary, we need a communication reference
model to describe the relationship between various
software and hardware.
• A reference model describes the layering
relationship of software and hardware involved in
the communication.
• A layered protocol performs specific functions and
communicates with the layers directly above and
below it.
 Communication Reference
Models
• The purpose of layering the protocol is to separate
specific functions and to make their
implementation transparent to other components.
• Advantage of layered approach: independent
design and testing of each communication
software component
• Disadvantage: overly layering can affect
performance negatively.
A Communications Model
 Source
◦ generates data to be transmitted
 Transmitter
◦ Converts data into transmittable signals
 Transmission System
◦ Carries data
 Receiver
◦ Converts received signal into data
 Destination
◦ Takes incoming data
Protocol Architecture
 Task of communication broken up into modules
 For example file transfer could use three modules

◦ File transfer application

◦ Communication service module
◦ Network access module
Protocol Data Units (PDU)
 At each layer, protocols are used to communicate
 Control information is added to user data at each
layer
 Transport layer may fragment user data
 Each fragment has a transport header added
◦ Destination SAP
◦ Sequence number
◦ Error detection code
 This gives a transport protocol data unit
Standards
 Required to allow for interoperability between
equipment
 Advantages

◦ Ensures a large market for equipment and software

◦ Allows products from different vendors to communicate
 Disadvantages
◦ Freeze technology
◦ May be multiple standards for the same thing
Categories of Protocols

 Proprietary system– designed and developed for

supporting the communications of machines
manufactured by a specific vender
 System Network Architecture (SNA) was designed and
developed for connecting IBM main frame computers
and peripherals (workstations, printers, tape drives, etc.)
 NetBEUI – Microsoft’s protocol for simple Windows
networks
 IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced
Packet exchange) – support Novell NetWare products
Categories of Protocols

 Open systems– publicly proposed and evaluated

protocols for supporting the internetworking of
heterogeneous machine
 Open System Interconnect (OSI) was developed by ISO
 TCP/IP was designed by IETF (Internet Engineering

Task Force), another volunteer organization for the

engineering issues of the Internet.
Circuit switching and packet switching
 Circuit switching is a type of network configuration in
which a physical path is obtained and dedicated to a
single connection between two endpoints in the
network for the duration of a dedicated connection.
 Ordinary voice phone service uses circuit switching. This
reserved circuit is used for the duration of a call.
 Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data
across various networks. These data chunks or
“packets” allow for faster, more efficient data transfer.
Circuit Switching VS Packet Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Each packet follows the same A packet can follow any

route route

Call setup is required No call setup is required

Bandwidth wastage No bandwidth wastage