HOW PHYSICS HELPS US
UNDERSTAND THE
COSMOS
Reporter: Magusib, Leny Ann L.
Salvador, Jennifer C.
Lungan, John Mark R.
Quilang, Donakin
1. RELATIVITY AND THE BIG
BANG.
2. PLANETS IN AND BEYOND
THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
APPLICATIONS OF
SPECIAL
RELATIVITY
The Doppler Effect
◦ The apparent change in the frequency of a source of
wave due to the motion of the source is called the
Doppler effect. The Doppler effect in light is more
commonly called Doppler shift and is expressed in
terms of color rather than frequency increases as a
wave is moved toward the blue part of the spectrum.
Extra solar Planets
◦ Extrasolar planets, or exoplanets, refer to those
that orbit a star other than the sun. To date, more
than 1000 exoplanets are known. Exoplanets are
detected using Doppler shift and transit methods. As
a planet orbits a star, it pulls the star and makes it
wobble as if it was pirouetting around a point in
space.
Cosmic Distance Ladder
◦ Astronomers measure the distance of celestial objects from
Earth by using a cosmic distance ladder. Just like in a
ladder, each step or rung corresponds to a certain range of
distance and the method used to approximate that distance,
expressed I light-years (ly). One light-year is the distance
that light travels in a year and is approximately equal to
9.5 x 10¹⁵m.
Four Steps
◦ The first step corresponds to distances up to 10-ly.
◦ The second rung refers to distances of nearby stars (up to 10 ly) measured by
parallax. Parallax is the apparent shift in the position of a star when viewed
from two different locations.
◦ The third step involves measuring distances of objects in the Milky Way (up to
10⁵ ly) by using main-sequence fitting.
◦ The fourth rung corresponds to distances of nearby galaxies (up to 10⁷ ly).
CONSEQUENCES OF
GENERAL
RELATIVITY
Warping of Space-Time
◦ Newton’s law of universal gravitation considers gravity as
the result of an attractive force between two objects by
virtue of their masses. General relativity considers gravity
as the product of curving or warping of space-time due to
the presence of mass or energy. Thus, gravity is not a force
but a product of space-time warping.
Gravitational Lensing
◦ Gravity can bend light just like a lens, hence the term
gravitational lensing. Light can be bent when it travels
along a warped space near a massive object. This was
confirmed in 1919 by measuring positions of stars during a
solar eclipse. Today, gravitational lensing is measured by
the deflection of radio waves emitted by distant galaxies
called quasars.
Planetary Orbits
◦ Planets rotate in elliptical orbits around the sun.
However, there is a slight shift in the perihelion and
the aphelion because of the influence of the other
planets.
◦ Black holes are also a consequence of general
relativity.
The Fate of Pluto
◦The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is
the internationally recognized authority that
classifies celestial bodies by using a criteria.
According to IAU, a planet must
(a) be in orbit around the sun;
(b) have a sufficient mass to attain a nearly
spherical shape; and
(c) be the dominant body in its orbit.
General Relativity and the Big Bang
Theory
◦ According to the big bang theory, the universe grew
enormously in a very short period after it was born in a
process called cosmic inflation. Einstein’s theory of
general relativity predicted that the very rapid expansion of
the universe would send ripples in space-time called
gravity waves or gravitational waves.
GENERALIZATION
• Galilean-Newtonian relativity relates qualities measured in various
inertial frames of reference, which move with constant velocity
relative to each other. Galilean-Newtonian relativity fails when the
speeds involved are comparable to the speed of light.
• Special relativity deals with the motion of objects in various inertial
frames of reference. In contrast to Galilean-Newtonian relativity,
special relativity remains valid when the velocities involved are
comparable to the speed of light.
GENERALIZATION
• There are two postulates of special relativity: (a) the laws of
physics are the same in all frames of reference; and (b) the speed of
light is constant in all frames of reference.
• The consequences of special relativity include time dilation, length
contraction, mass increase, and relativistic Newton’s second law.
• Hubble’s law states that the rate at which a celestial body moves
away from Earth is proportional to its distance from the planet.
GENERALIZATION
• General relativity deals with accelerated frames of
reference. It considers gravitation as a result of space-time
warping,
• Among the consequences of general relativity are
gravitational lensing, shift in planetary orbits of some
planets, formation of black holes, and gravitational waves.
ASTROMETRY AND
COSMOLOGY
◦Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that
deals with the origin and evolution of the
universe. Astrometry on the other hand is the
branch of astronomy involved in the
measurement of distances and motion of
celestial bodies. These two branches are
related.
First few steps of the Cosmic Distance
Ladder
◦ Even without the aid of sophisticated tools, early
scientists were able to make many meaningful
approximate measurements in astronomy. By
observing the circular arc-shaped shadow casted by
the earth on the moon during lunar eclipse, and the
shape of the phases of the moon.
•Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
–was able to tell that the earth and the moon is spherical.
•Eratosthenes (276-194 BCE)
–used geometry with a lot of observation to calculate the radius of the
earth which is accurate within 8% of the actual radius of the earth.
•Aristarchus (310 – 230 BCE)
–was also responsible for making the first documented measurement of
the distance of the Moon from the Earth, as well as , the approximate
radius of the moon.
Cosmic Distance Ladder
◦ is a series of successive methods used by astronomers to determine
the distances of distant celestial bodies such as stars and galaxies. In
this method, one rung or step of the ladder correspond to a process
done to measure certain ranges of distances, to which information
gathered in this step can be use to obtain approximate measurements
of tte next higher rung.
◦ Scientists used the term Astronomical Unit (AU) – the average
distance of the Earth from the Sun which is now measured to be
1.498 x 10⁸km.
◦ In considering measurements of distances within the solar
system, Radar Ranging is used. As depicted in figure 2,
Radar pulses in the form of EM waves will be sent from earth
towards the target celestial object. This pulse will be reflected
from the target celestial object to the earth. The time of the
reflected pulse to be detected back on earth will be recorded to
calculate the approximate distance of the target celestial
object. Radar ranging serves as the first rung or step in our
cosmic distance ladder. This is used to determine the distance
of objects in the Solar System.
Going Beyond the Solar System
◦The next rung in the Cosmic Distance Ladder
is the use of Parallax – the apparent
displacement or difference in the apparent
position of an object viewed along two
different lines of sight.
◦ This can be demonstrated in Figure 3. Extend your arm and
look at your finger with a distant background, with one of
your eyes closed. You will notice that when you focus at your
finger (closer object of interest) while having a distant object
as background, the image of your finger appears to shift
positions relative to the background when you use only one
eye alternately. This apparent “shift” in the position of the
object of interest is due to the change in the position of the
observer (your right and left eye respectively).
◦ As applied to astrometry, astronomers use trigonometric
parallax to calculate the distance of a relatively nearby
celestial object such as a nearby star (other than the sun).
This is done by comparing observations of a nearby star
that are taken six months apart. The nearby star appears
to be displaced against the background of farther stars
because the observations were taken from two opposite
points of Earth’s orbit around the sun.
◦ Among the standard candles available, the most useful for nearby
galaxies are special classes called Cepheid variable stars or
Cepheids. These stars vary in luminosity alternately appearing to be
dim and bright with intervals from a few days to a few months.
Henrietta Leavitt in 1912 discovered that when Cepheids have
longer periods of alternating brightness, the more luminous it
become.
◦ Cepheids can be used to approximate the distance of stars and
Galaxies up to 100 million light-years away. Like Cepheids, White
dwarf supernovae can also be used to measure distances of very far
galaxies.
Doppler Effect
◦ You might have experienced hearing the sound of siren from an approaching ambulance or
train. You noticed that as the source of sound approaches your location, the sound emitted by
the source become louder.. As the source moves away from your location, the sound
gradually fades.
◦ Doppler Effect is also observed in light and when this happens, the wavelength of light from
sources such as flashlights, light bulbs or even stars will be affected. Once the wavelength of
light is affected, there will be changes in the observed colors of light. When the source of
light is moving towards the observer, the observed light turns Blue shifted or shifted towards
the short wavelength portion of the spectrum. When the source of light is moving away from
the observer, the observed light becomes Red Shifted or shifted towards the long wavelength
portion of the spectrum.
HUBBLE’S LAW AND
THE EXPANDING
UNIVERSE
Edwin Hubble
◦ Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the Andromeda
Galaxy enabled him to study for the Milky Way
Galaxy. This made scientists believe that the Milky
Way is only a small portion of a larger universe.
1. Cosmic Background Radiation
◦ In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered
strange “noises” in their Radio telescope observations. The
noises turned out to be the remnants of the original
radiation emitted by the expanding universe. Since the
universe was initially very dense and very hot prior to its
expansion, 14 billion years after, the universe should have
cooled down. They measured this background radiation to
be 2.75 K.
2. Ratio of Primordial Elements
◦ During the early state of the universe, early elements such as
hydrogen and helium, fuse to form new elements (Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis), the same as how stars generate their energy
through thermonuclear fusion. As time progresses, the ratio of
elements should be proportional. Astronomers measure the ratios of
hydrogen, helium, and other Trace elements. It turned out that the
present ratio of elements is in accordance with the predictions
made.
3. Formation of Galaxies
◦ If the Big Bang is true, then there should be a great
number of galaxies and galaxy clusters out there.
Continuous discoveries of galaxy formation across
the universe and differences in the structure of these
galaxies also serve as strong evidence that the Big
Bang really exists.
4. Primordial Gas Clouds
◦ Recently formed galaxies should contain a good mix
of light and heavy elements. However, there were
discoveries of Gas Clouds that only contain
Hydrogen and Deuterium. These primordial gas
clouds are said to be remnants of the early universe.
THANKYOU!!
