Magnetic Particle Testing

Introduction

MPT/MPI is used to detect defect in material. Materials can be classified into two
types i.e. Magnetic Material & Non-magnetic Material. When discussing magnetic
particle theory, we classify materials into three categories i.e. Ferromagnetic,
Paramagnetic & Diamagnetic Material.

There are three types of materials: -

Diamagnetic Metals – Have a small & negative susceptibility to magnetization
(slightly repelled). Copper, Silver & gold are examples of diamagnetic materials.
Paramagnetic Metals – Have a small & positive susceptibility to magnetization
(slightly attracted). Magnesium, Molybdenum, Lithium & Tantalum are examples
Ferromagnetic Metals – Have a large & positive susceptibility to magnetization.
They have a strong attraction & are able to retain their magnetization after the
magnetizing field has been removed. Iron, Cobalt & Nickel are examples of
ferromagnetic metals. Ferromagnetic materials are the only metals commonly
inspected with the magnetic particle testing method.
Magnetic Materials
Stainless steel
There are three classes of stainless steel
1)Austenitic 2) Ferritic 3) Martensitic
All (300) series stainless steel are austenitic
All (400) series stainless steel are martensitic & ferritic
Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic
Cr = 17 – 25 % Cr = 17 – 27 % Cr = 11.5 – 17 %
Ni = 8- 20% C =0.08 – 2.0% C =0.08 – 2.0%
Low carbon Highly magnetic Highly magnetic
Non magnetic

Should never pre Heated when Require pre-heat & post-heat when Require pre-heat & post-heat when
welding welding welding
Common ANSI No. Common ANSI No Common ANSI No
301,302,302B,303,303SE, 430,442,446, 410,414,416,420
304,305,308,309,310,316,317,321,
347,304L,308L,316L
Magnetic Materials

Because magnetization of
certain metals is possible. It is
possible to reveal discontinuities
by using a medium (Iron
Powder) having magnetic
attraction.
The medium is applied to the
surface of the test object after or
during induction of a magnetic
field.
The sketch below shows a build-
up of the magnetic particle
medium over the discontinuity in
the magnetized part.
Magnetic Materials

Magnetic particle testing is a relatively easy and simple test method that can be
applied at various stages of manufacture & processing operations.
The objective of magnetic particle testing is to insure product reliability that can be
applied at various stages of manufacture & processing operations.
The objective of magnetic particle testing is to insure product reliability by
providing a means of:

Obtaining a visual image of an indication on the surface of a material

Disclosing the nature of discontinuities without impairing the material

Separating acceptable & unacceptable material in accordance with

predetermined standards
Magnetization Theory

An object is magnetized when part or all of its magnetic domains have their North &
South Poles oriented.
N S N
N S N S N S N S

S N S
N S
N

The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is concentrated at the local areas called
poles. The North & South Poles exhibit attraction & repulsion.

S N REPE N S
L

N S ATTRA N S
CT
Magnetization Theory

With all of the magnetic domains lined up, the magnetic bar develops a total force
equal to the sum of all of the magnetic domains.

These are the Magnetic Lines of Force which form a closed loop or circuit
All of the lines of force make up the magnetic field.

Lines of Force

N S
Magnetization Theory

The force that attracts other

magnetizable materials to the
magnetic poles is known as
Magnetic Flux.
Magnetic Flux is made up of all the
lines of force. N S
The horseshoe magnet will attract
other magnetizable material only
where the lines of force Leave or
Enter the magnet.
Magnetization Theory
If a magnet is bent into a complete loop as shown below. The magnetic field is
entirely within, thus no external force.
However, a crack in the circular magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of force &
create a flux leakage.

Leakage field N Iron Particles

(Flux Leakage)
S
are actually
magnetic lines of
force that leave
the part & pass
through air form
one pole to the Field is entirely within, Leakage Field will
other of opposite thus no external force attract magnetic
polarity. particles
Magnetization Theory

Whenever the leakage field is forced out of the part, iron particles would be
attracted showing an indication of a discontinuity.
Even some subsurface discontinuities may be detected if the leakage field is
storing enough as shown below:

Flux Leakage Flux Leakage

S N

N
S N
S S
N
Magnetization Theory

VECTOR FIELD: When two magnetizing forces are imposed simultaneously in the
same part, the object is not magnetized in two directions at the same time. A vector
field is formed which is the resultant direction & strength of the two imposed fields.
This is illustrated below, where Fa is the first magnetizing force Fb is the second
force & Fa+b equals the resultant magnetizing force

Fa F a+b
Fb
Magnetization Theory

Magnetic Materials: If an object is placed in a magnetic field a force

is exerted on it & it is said to become magnetized.

The intensity of magnetization depends upon the susceptibility of the

material to become magnetized.

Ferromagnetic materials are the only metals commonly inspected

with the magnetic particle testing method.
Magnetization Theory
Magnetic Flux: The total number of magnetic lines of force existing in a magnetic
circuit is called magnetic flux.
The lines of force in a magnetic circuit are always formed closed loops. Therefore,
a magnetic circuit is always closed as shown below:

Magnetic Field

N S

Flux Density or induction is usually designated in gauss units & refers to the
Flux-per-unit area at right angles to the direction of the flux.
Magnetization Theory

Right-hand rule Vs Left-hand rule: To find the direction of an electrically induced

magnetic field, place your thumb on the conductor in the direction of “Current
Flow” & your fingers will then point in the direction of the lines of force.
A circular magnetic field is produced in the sketch below:


Direction of current

Direction of the
Magnetic Field
(Lines of Force)
Magnetization Theory

The general dynamics handbook uses the “Current Flow” Theory which utilizes
the right-hand rule. In this older convention electricity is considered to flow from +
to –
If the more commonly accepted “Electron Flow” theory were use, it would be
necessary to use the left-hand rule. The “Electron Flow” theory considers
electricity to flow from – to +

Important: The two methods of determining the flow of electricity

should not become confusing. They both result in a magnetic field
flowing in the same direction.
Magnetization Theory
The sketch below shows how a magnetic field is produced utilizing a coil. The
field is circular around the cable but produces a longitudinal field in the
specimen.
Using figure “A” below, try the right-hand rule (current flow + to –) to
demonstrate the direction of the magnetic field with the “current flow” theory.
Current flow theory right-hand rule + to –

Magnetic Field
Magnetization Theory

Also, try the left-hand rule on figure “B” below to demonstrate that the “Electron
Flow” theory (– to +) will produce a magnetic field in the same direction.
Electron Flow theory Left-hand rule – to +
Magnetization Theory

Important Definitions:
Magnetizing Force: It is that force, represented by “H” that tends to set up
the magnetic flux in a material.
Magnetic Flux: Magnetic lines of force existing in a magnetic field are
called the magnetic flux. It is expressed in weber. The flux is generally
represented by the letter “Q”
Flux Density: It is the flux per unit area. Its is designated by letter “B” & the
unit of flux density measurement is the Tesla (wb/m2) or gauss.
Q
B=
S
Where : B = Flux Density
Q = Magnetic Flux
S = Cross Section Area
Magnetization Theory

Permeability: This refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is

established in the article being inspected It is the ease with which a
material can be magnetized
B µ = Permeability
µ= H
B = Flux Density
H = Magnetizing Force

Reluctance – This is the opposition of a magnetic material to the

establishment of a magnetic flux. A material with high permeability will have a
low reluctance.
Residual Magnetism – This refers to the amount of magnetism retained after
the magnetizing force is removed.
Retentivity – Refers to the ability of the material to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetism
Coercive force – Refers to the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove
the residual magnetism from the part.
Magnetization Theory

For example: If a piece of high carbon steel were placed in a magnetizing field, it
would exhibit the following –

It would have low permeability because it would be hard to magnetize.

It would be highly reluctant to accept a magnetic flux because of the high

carbon content.

It would have a high residual magnetic field. The high carbon steel is
reluctant to accept a magnetic flux but is also reluctant to give it up once it
has been accepted

It would be highly retentive of the magnetic field that it has accepted.

It would take a high coercive force to remove the residual magnetism from
the high carbon steel part.
Methods of Magnetization

Earth Magnetic Field

Permanent Magnet – It is used where electric supply is either not available or not
allowed .
Limitations –
a) Field strength cannot be adjusted
b) Separation of job is difficult
c) Field strength is decrease.

Electric Current – Magnetic fields may be induced

Directly – The current is passed directly through the part.

Indirectly – The magnetization is induced by placing the part in a magnetic field
which is generated by a current flowing through a conductor.
Circular Magnetization
A circular magnetic field is induced into a specimen by – Direct induction of
a circular field into an article. This is accomplished by passing a current through
the article as shown in the head shot below:
Direct Induction with prods
Prod magnetization is used where the size or location of an article does not
permit the use of a head shot or central conductor. Current flow & circular field
distributions are shown below:
Indirect Induction of a circular field – This is accomplished by placing a
current carrying conductor into the specimen. This method is known as the
central conductor technique & is illustrated below:
Field

Circular magnetic field in a

nonmagnetic material: In a
Current
nonmagnetic material the
lines of force will not stay in
the material. For example,
when a copper bar is used,
the magnetic field is
established around the bar as
shown :
Current Flow
Circular magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material: In a ferromagnetic material
the lines of force are established within the material. Iron is permeable & readily
conducts the magnetic field as shown below:

In both ferromagnetic & non-

magnetic materials, the lines of
force are at right angles (90˚) to
the direction of electric current
flow.
Iron particles will not be
attracted to a magnetized part
except where a flux leakage
exists. A crack in the part as
shown below would cause a
typical indication Iron Particles
Circular magnetization will detect discontinuities that are between 45 & 90
degrees to the lines of force. A crack that runs parallel to the lines of force will not
attract particles because no poles or flux leakage exists at the crack

Crack parallel to lines of force

will not show

Crack at 45˚ will show

Crack at 90˚ to lines of force will show

The circular magnetization created with prods will also only detect discontinuities
that are essentially perpendicular to the lines of force.
Longitudinal Magnetization: A Longitudinal Magnetic Field is induced into a
specimen by – Coil (solenoid) – When the length of the specimen is several times
its diameter or cross section. The specimen can be successfully magnetized by
placing it lengthwise in the field of the coil
Yoke – A yoke may be used to magnetize a specimen longitudinally as shown.
The yoke is essentially a temporary horseshoe magnet. It is made of soft, low
retentivity iron which is magnetized by a small coil wound around its horizontal bar.
When copper wire is wound into a coil, the lines of flux around each turn of the coil
combine with those of each of the other turns in the coil.
This increases the flux density in the longitudinal direction. The flux density is the
greatest at the surface of the copper wire. Therefore, flux density will be greatest at
the coil
Alternating current (AC) is the most widely use while Conducting magnetic
particle testing. AC can be readily converted to the flow voltages used in magnetic
particle inspection by the use of transformers. AC has little penetrating power &
provides the best detection of surface discontinuities. It is not effective for
subsurface. Surface AC is continuously reversing direction. The magnetic field has
a tendency to agitate or make the iron particles more mobile. This causes the iron
particles to be more responsive to the flux leakage. Current reversal is illustrated
below:
Wave from AC

b
Current

a c e
0

d
Time
Direct current (DC) – Single phase AC can be rectified to produce half wave
alternating current (HWAC), commonly called half wave direct current (HWDC)
HWDC means that the reverse polarity or negative portion of the sine curve is
eliminated as below:

+ +

0 0

AC Input Rectifier HWDC Output

With HWDC there are intervals of individual pulses of direct current & also
intervals when no current is flowing.
Hysteresis Loop: The
permeability of a material can
be determined by increasing
the magnetizing force
(electric current strength) until
the material reaches its
saturation point.
Each type of material has a
point of maximum flux density
(saturation). If we place a
piece of steel in a coil through
which alternating current is
flowing. We can plot the
relation between magnetizing
current “H” & the flux density
“B”. The result is a hysteresis
loop as shown :
At each increase of the force “H” there is an increase in flux density “B” until the
saturation point is reached.

The dashed line above (points O – A) shows the maximum flux density & is often
referred to as the virgin curve.

As the magnetic force is increased the flux in the material increases quite rapidly at
first then more slowly until it reaches a point beyond which any increase in the
magnetizing force does not increase the flux density (Point A)
As the magnetizing
force is reduced to
Flux Density
zero (from point A to
a
B) the flux density H = Zero
slowly drops until the b
magnetizing force Residual
(current) is zero Magnetis
The ability of the m
0
steel to retain a Magnetizing Magnetizing
certain amount of Force Force
residual magnetism
is called retentivity,
as shown between
points O & B
When the magnetizing force
is reversed, as always
happens with AC the flux
Flux Density
density is reduced to zero at
point C Retentivit
Coercive force is the reverse y
(Residual
magnetizing force required Magnetis
to remove residual Magnetizing m) Magnetizing
magnetism from the material Force Coercive Force
Force
Hardened steel would
require a stronger reverse
magnetizing force to remove
the residual magnetism.
As the reverse
magnetizing
force is
increased Flux Density
beyond point C, a
the flux density Reverse Residual b
increased to the Magnetism
saturation point
c
in the reverse
direction shown Magnetizing Force 0 Magnetizing Force
in point D below:
e Reverse Residual
Point E below d
shows the Saturation point Magnetism
residual of opposite
magnetic field in polarity
the reverse
direction.
 Flux
The force required to Density
remove this residual field a Maximu
is shown between points b m Flux
O & F & is again called Density
Magnetiz
coercive force c ing Force
The hysteresis loop is Magnetizing 0 f LineMagnetizing
completed as the Force Force
magnetizing force is e Coercive
d Force
again in creased to a
maximum flux density at
point A.
As hysteresis loop is formed with every complete of 60 CPS current. A
hysteresis loop could also be used to describe the magnetization or
demagnetization with DC where the current is either manually or
automatically reversed between straight (+) polarity & reverse (–)
polarity.

A wide hysteresis loop indicates a material that is difficult to magnetize

(one with a high reluctance)

The hysteresis loop gets its name from the lag between the applied
magnetizing force & the actual flux density in the part. This lag is shown
between points 0 & F
 Flux
Density

Coercive
Force

O F Magnetizing
Force

Residual
Magnetis
m
 A thin hysteresis loop indicates
a material of low retentivity.

The loop below shows the

Coercive qualities of a soft material such
Force as low carbon steel.
O F
The coercive force is low
Residual
Magnetism because the material retains
only a weak residual magnetic
field.
 Comparison of different Ferromagnetic Materials
Soft Iron Hard Carbon Steel

High Permeability Low Permeability

Low Retentivity High Retentivity

Easily Magnetized Difficult to magnetize

Easily Demagnetized Difficult to

demagnetize
Direct current field distribution
Solid nonmagnetic conductor: When direct current is passed directly through a
solid non-magnetic conductor, such as a copper bar, the following can be observed:

Field Strength at surface (F)

Field Strength

F
2 F
3

R 2R 3R

F be
Then 2R from centre will
etc. 2
Direct current field distribution

The magnetic field Where R = Radius

strength varies F = Field at the
from zero at the surfaceF
centre to a Then 2R2 from the centre
maximum at the F the field
- F
Strength will be etc.
surface. The field F 2 -
3
Field

strength outside
the conductor R Distance
diminishes with the
distance from the
central conductors
centre ( the field at
two times the
radius from the Solid magnetic conductor: Distribution of a direct
centre half the field current field within a magnetic article can be illustrated
at the surface). graphically as shown above
Direct current field distribution

The flux density increases evenly from zero until it reaches peak strength at the
surface.

Because of the permeability of steel, the field strength is greater within a

magnetic conductor as compared to a non-magnetic conductor.

The flux density drops rapidly just outside the surface of the steel bar shown as
in previous slide.

The field strength outside a solid conductor is the same with either a magnetic
or non-magnetic conductor.
Hollow Magnetic Conductor

Where R = Radius
Permeability is F = Field at the
again a factor in surfaceF
determining field Then 2R 2 from the centre the
field
Field Strength

strength. If the
outer diameter & will be etc.
F

current flow are

identical when
comparing a R 2R 3R
solid & hollow Distance
conductor, the
field strength will
be the same.
Hollow Non Magnetic Conductor

Where R = Radius
F = Field at the
surface
F
Then 2R from the centre the
In both magnetic & field 2
non-magnetic will be etc.
hollow conductors, F
- F
Strength

the strength is zero -

F
2
3
Field

at the inner surface

& increases to
maximum at the R 2 3
R RDistance
outer surface.
Hollow Non Magnetic Conductor

As with both solid & hollow, & both magnetic & non-magnetic, the field strength
outside the conductor diminishes with the distance from the central conductors
centre.

However, the difference between the permeability of magnetic & non-magnetic

materials affects the field strength within the conductor.

Because of the low permeability of non-magnetic conductor the field strength is

relatively low.

As shown in next slide direct current flowing through a central conductor will produce
a maximum field on the inside surface of the tube being inspected.
Hollow Non Magnetic Conductor
Hollow Non Magnetic Conductor

Since the magnetizing force is from the field external to the central conductor. It is
obvious (by comparing previous sketches) that either a magnetic or non-magnetic
bar could be used for a central conductor.

However a material such as copper is often recommended as a central conductor

because there is less heat build-up due to better conductivity.

Alternating Current Field Distribution: Up to this point, all field distributions have
assumed the use of direct current (DC).

Alternating current (AC) tends to flow near the surface of a conductor, this
phenomenon is known as “Skin Effect”

It is shown below that AC provides a concentrated flux density near the surface
which provides for good detection of surface discontinuities.
Hollow Non Magnetic Conductor

It is also shown above

that DC provides the Peak Flux Density
best conditions for
locating subsurface DC Flux

Field Strength
discontinuities because Distributio
n
of the distribution of the AC Flux
flux density. The field Distributio
n
strength outside the
conductor is comparable 0
R Distance
for both AC & DC. As
with DC both conductivity
& permeability affect the Steel Bar
field strength &
distributions.
Hollow Non Magnetic Conductor
Magnetic AC
AC
Particles Wet Dry
1000
DC
800 Wet

Amperage Current
DC
Dry
600

400
HWDC
dry
Sensitivity of Methods: It is well 200
established that the AC method is best
suited for finding surface defects.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
However, the chart below illustrates the
ability of various currents using both wet Hole Number & Relative
& dry magnetic particles in locating Depth
subsurface discontinuities.
Current Requirements (Circular Magnetization): The amount of current will
vary with the shape & permeability. The material being tested. A test specimen
with a typical indication is a good method to assure that only enough current is
used to show the indication.

Too much current will burn the part or may cause heavy accumulations of iron
particles.

Too little current may not provide sufficient flux leakage to attract the iron
particles.

The following rule is used to determine the current needed:

800-1000 amperes per inch of article thickness or diameter.

To use this rule on articles of greater thickness, just multiply the 800 –or 1000 by
the number of inches of articles thickness.
What amperage would be used on the following part?
Steel Bar 10*3*2 inches thick Answer: 1600 to 2000 amps.
What amperage range is required to circularly magnetize the bar shown in the
head shot below?

Answer: 2.5” thick 1” thick

800-1000 for
first shot

2000-2500 for
second shot
Current
The rule of using 800-1000 ampears per inch of thickens also applies to circular
magnetization with a central conductor. Article thickness is taken from the outside
diameter of the article. What would the ampere ranges be for the three parts
shown on the central conductor below?

Nut 1” O.D.
Answer:

800-1000 for 1” nut

1600-2000 for 2”
ring
Spacer 3” O.D.
2400-3000 for 3” Ring 2” O.D.
spacer
Current Requirements (Longitudinal Magnetization): When a coil is used to
produce longitudinal magnetization, the effective field it creates is determined by
the product of the number of amperes & the number of turns in the coil.
For example, a current of 800 amperes through a five-turn coil creates a
magnetizing force of 4000 ampere turns.
The amount of current needed for longitudinal magnetization with a coil is
controlled by the formula:
I = Current in amperes
45,000 N = Number of turns in coil
NI = L = Length of article
L/D Ratio D = Diameter or thickness of article

The figure 45,000 is a constant for all computations.

L/D is the length to diameter or thickness ratio of the part NI is the ampere turns
When the number of ampere
turns is found using the
above formula the next step 16”
is to divide the ampere turns
by the number of turns in the
coil. This will determine the
magnetizing current needed
most coils typically have
three to five turns. 2”
What magnetizing current
would be needed for a part
16” long with a diameter of 2”
using a five turn coil?( N=3)
Coil

Answer: 1875 Amperes

 While using the formula NI = 4500/ L/D Ratio , the following assumptions are made.

1. An article greater than 18” requires

more than one coil shot.
2. The cross section of the article is not
greater than one-tenth the area of the
coil opening.
3. The article has an L/D ratio of
between 3 -15
4. The article is placed against the inside
wall of the coil & not in the centre
where the flux density is zero.
Prod Magnetization:
Prods are current B
carrying conductors A
(usually copper) which
are used to magnetize
localized areas as
shown.
Caution – The use of
prods may be restricted
for some applications
due to the possibility of
burns at the point of
contact.
Prod Magnetization creates a circular magnetic field in the part. In the sketch above
can you use the left-hand rule to determine if the current is flowing from A to B or
from B to A? A guideline for determining how much direct current & what prod
spacing are best for any given testing problems is shown below:
Prod spacing, inches Section thickness, inches
Under ¾” ¾” & over
2 to 4 200 to 300 amperes 300 to 400 amperes
Over 4 to less than 6 300 to 400 amperes 400 to 600 amperes
6 to 8 400 to 600 amperes 600 to 800 amperes
When half wave direct current (HWDC) is used, the field strength per ampere is
about the same as with direct current (DC) at typical prod spacing (6 to 8 inches)
However, since HWDC consumes less power & produces lower heating effects at
the prod contact points. It is often recommended HWDC also produces better
powder mobility than DC.
 B
The prods
should be A
placed on the
part so that the
resultant
circular field is
at 90 degrees
to the
suspected
discontinuities.
 Demagnetization: It is the process of reversing the direction of magnetic fields &
reducing the field strength.
When it is required?
Demagnetization is required when the amount of residual magnetization left in
material is more & further working of component is going to be affected by the
residual field, like use of component in air-craft industries or use of component in
shop or use of component in ball bearing. It also not be desirable in the part for
several reasons:
1. Residual fields will affect magnetic compass or create problems with delicate
instruments.
2. Residual fields in rotating wear or binding particles causing excessive wear or binding
3. Parts are also demagnetized so that all magnetic particles can be removed for further
processing.
4. Residual fields can cause “Arc Blow” which defects the molten metal during DC
welding operations.
 The following situations require a demagnetization process to take place:

a) When the component is to be placed in service near to a navigational compass or to

extremely sensitive measuring instrumentation.
b) When the part is to be further machined. Swart would be picked up & can damage
cutting edges & machined surfaces.
c) When the part is to be welded after testing. Magnetic fields will blow the weld pool &
therefore defective welding will occur.
d) When it is a procedural requirement.
e) When a second MPI is to take place at a lower value than the initial test.
f) When the part is to be placed ‘in situ’ next to a bearing surface, Swarf etc. will
increase the wear of the bearing.
g) When final cleaning will be interfered with.
When it is not necessary?

When the amount of residual field left in material is small & further working of
component is not going to be affected by residual magnetization then it was not
necessary.
Review of Residual Magnetization:

1. The residual field is in the same direction as the magnetic field

2. The residual field is weaker than the magnetic field
3. The original magnetizing force causes the residual field
4. When an article has been magnetized in more than one direction the second field applied
completely overcomes the first field. However, this is only true if the second field is
stronger than the first. The second field is stronger than the first. When the second field
applied is not stronger than the first field then a combination circular longitudinal field
will result.
When the second field applied is not stronger than the first field then a
combination circular longitudinal residual field will result.

It is difficult to tell whether a circularly magnetized bar is demagnetized because

the flux lines do not normally leave the bar.

On the other hand, it is easy to tell if a longitudinally magnetized bar is still

magnetized or demagnetized. Therefore it is often recommended that a circularly
magnetized part be longitudinally magnetized & then go through the
demagnetization procedure.

Combination Circular
Longitudinal Residual
 Circularly
Magnetized

Longitudinally
magnetized

Reversing the magnetic field –

1. Reversing the part in the magnetic field
Demagnetizing a part that has 2. Reversing the current through the coil
been longitudinally magnetized 3. Reversing the coil (turn the coil 180˚)
each time. The magnetizing Reducing the magnetic field –
field is reduced & reversed, the 1. Reduce the magnetizing current
residual field is reduced. 2. Move the part away from the coil
3. Move the coil away from the part
Any method of demagnetization will combine one of the methods to
reduce the magnetizing field with one of the methods to reverse the
magnetizing field.

Demagnetization is defined as: The removal of residual magnetism by

simultaneously or alternately reducing the strength & reversing the
direction of a magnetic field.
Demagnetization Procedures:
1. Alternating current coil method – Alternating current is electrical current flowing
through a wire, first in one direction, then in the opposite direction. Each time the current
reverses direction, the magnetic field of the coil reverses (this meets one of the two
requirements for demagnetization). To complete the demagnetization the process, the
part is placed in the reversing magnetic field as shown below & the current is slowly
reduced which reduces the strength of the magnetic field. A rheostat is often used to
reduce the current through the coil.
Reducing the magnetic field in an AC coil demagnetizer usually done by slowly moving
the article away from the coil.
2. Demagnetization using direct current – With DC the current is not automatically
reversed. It is therefore necessary to have some mechanical means to reverse the
current because DC is more penetrating than AC. It is used on large parts. The
maximum degree of demagnetization can be obtained with DC when the field is
reversed at a frequency of one reversal per second.
In DC demagnetization, the magnetizing field should be reduced first then reversed. A
rule of thumb for demagnetization soft iron. At least 10 reversals, but not over 30.
When an article is demagnetized, the earth’s field will leave a smaller amount of
residual magnetism in the article if the demagnetization field is also in a north-south
direction.
Where complete demagnetization is required, the demagnetization field must be
placed in an east-west direction (the coil opening facing east & west)
Leakage field indicators: There is no
satisfactory method by which the
magnetic field can be measured
inside the article without destroying
it. There must be a leakage field in
order to determine whether the
article is magnetized.

The Residual field indicator:

1. Compares the strength of the external 5 0 5
10 10
field of the article with a fixed field +
inside the indicator
2. Is used more to locate flux leakage than
to measure field strength
3. Is used to show when the part is
demagnetized.
Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment:

The following should be considered when selecting magnetic particle testing –

1. Is equipment for wet or dry method?

2. Magnetization requirements (AC or DC)
3. Demagnetization – incorporated or separate unit?
4. Amperage required
5. Line voltage requirements
6. Accessories needed or required.
Wet horizontal COIL TYPE MACHINE WITH BUILT-IN DEMAG
equipment: To
obtain circular
magnetization, the
specimen is clamped
between the head &
tail stocks.
For longitudinal
magnetization the
coil is moved so that
the area to be tested
is encircled by the
coil.
A typical wet horizontal
unit usually
accommodates both
AC & HWDC
The wet continuous-field method
has three basic steps –
1. Flow bath through nozzle &
over entire surface of part.
2. Stop bath flow.
3. Apply current at the instant
bath flow is stopped.
Dry continuous-field method:

With this method the powder is usually applied from a shaker, or blower & follows
these steps -
1. Apply magnetizing current.
2. Blow powder particles over magnetized area.
3. Blow excess powder off part.
4. Shut off magnetizing current.

The powder should float to the magnetized area so the particles will be
attracted to any flux leakage.

The dry powder method is typically used with both mobile & portable equipment
which will be discussed on the following pages.
Mobile equipment: In many cases it is
necessary to bring the equipment to the
specimen.

Typical mobile equipment such as the

one above usually operates on 220/440
volts AC & will produce about 4000
amperes.
Mobile cables used on the unit above
vary from 15 feet to 100 feet shorter
cables will permit the maximum current
output.
Prods & cables are usually used with the mobile equipment. It often takes two
technicians to manipulate the prods & apply the magnetic powder.
However, longitudinal magnetization can be produced by wrapping the cable into a
coil. It is also possible to use a central conductor clamped between the two cables
to produce circular magnetization. Typical mobile equipment uses the dry powder
method but can be used with aerosol cans or external tanks.

Portable Equipment: It is lighter & less expensive than the other types of magnetic
particle testing equipment.
Typical portable equipment as shown above operates on 110/220 volts AC with an
output of between 500 & 1200 amperes. These units usually have a choice of either
AC or HWDC.
As with mobile equipment the cables can be used for prods wrapping into a coil or
connecting to a central conductor.
Portable equipment also uses the dry powder method for most applications.
Demagnetizing Equipment: The most common type of demagnetizing equipment
consists of an open coil through which AC is flowing.
A typical unit is shown below & includes a track that will carry the part through the
coil. As the part is carried away from the coil the magnetic field is reduced. The
continuously alternating current in the coil completes the demagnetization.
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Advantages of the usage of fluorescent inks:
1) Fluorescent indications stand out & attract attention.
2) Small indications stand out.
3) Good contrast – indications/background.
4) Contrast of No. 3 does not depend on surface condition.
5) Ideal for internal usage – bores, keyways etc.
6) No dazzle from background highlights.
7) Good indications from corners & sharp section changes.
Disadvantages of the usage of fluorescent inks:
1) If the concentration is incorrect non-relevant indications may mask defects.
2) A black light in a darkened viewing area is required.
3) The residue of the test may be difficult to remove from the component.
4) Fluorescent ink can easily be contaminated.
5) Ink can be washed out of wide discontinuities.
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing –
1. Non-magnetic materials cannot be tested.
2. Magnetic particle testing will not detect discontinuities that are deeper than approximately ¼” below the
surface. However, the penetration depends on the permeability of the material, type of discontinuity &
amount & type of current used.
Safety precautions –
1. Electrical arcing is a hazard: It is usually caused by poor contact or by using excessive current. It can
also be caused by allowing the prods to slip which may result in arcing or damaging the surface of the
part. The arcing causes sparks which may result in a fire.
2. The dust from the magnetic particles is nontoxic but excessive amounts should not be inhales, use a
dust respirator.
3. Smoking or open flame should not be permitted near the wet bath process.
4. The black light which is used with fluorescent particles will not damage the skin or eyes if the filters
are used on the light. It is possible to experience a clouding of vision if the black light is directed into
the eyes. This happens because the fluid in the eyes will momentarily fluoresce.
5. Burns can be caused due to the resistance heating in the part or in the prods. Caution should be used in
handling the parts or touching the prods immediately after the magnetic particle test.
Magnetic particle mediums & their preparation: When the medium, whether dry or
liquid is applied to the specimen while the magnetizing current is flowing. The
procedure is known as the Continuous Method.If the medium is applied after the
magnetizing current is shut off the procedure is known as the Residual Method.
In the dry method, the powder is applied by sprinkling or dusting the specimen.
In the wet method,
the medium is mixed
with a liquid
(kerosene or oil) to
make a bath which
is then applied to the
surface of the
specimen.
Flux leakage at the location of discontinuities is at a maximum when the flux
field/discontinuity orientation is 90˚. Form this it must be appreciated that both the
correct level of magnetization & the field orientation is applied. This therefore means
that magnetization must take place in at least two different directions. If this is not
expedited it is possible that defects present will not be detected & that the test will
be invalid.
To measure test sensitivity a number of aids can be utilized, these are as follows:

1) Burmah Castrol Strips

2) Berthold penetrameter
3) ASME penetrameter
4) GAUSS Meter
Method of test for solids content & general condition of magnetic inks: Agitate the
ink container continuously for not less than 5min. Place 100ml. Sample into a
settlement flask e.g. a Sutherland Flask, & allow to settle for 60 minutes. Read off to
the nearest 0.1ml. the level reached by the solids & recount it as the solids content
by volume.

NB: Further controlled sampling tests are detailed in BS 4069-1982 edition e.g.
Corrosion test, aerosol containers etc. in Appendices A, B, C & D.
Magnetic flaw detection powders: Powders shall consist of finely divided
ferromagnetic particles.

Further other constituents may be present at the discretion of the manufacturers

e.g. silica gel for moisture absorption.

Powders should not contain any constituents that are generally recognized or known
to be likely to cause injury or discomfort to operators during or after usage.
NB: These aids do not indicate the minimum size of defect detected but merely the
fact that the materials & equipment will perform a valid test.
Sensitivity Checks:
Burmah castrol strips (To BS 6072)
3 ferromagnetic wires encased in a material e.g. brass are placed in the
magnetic force field on the component. The number of wires visible indicate the
strength of magnetic field present

F. M. Insert
Flux Field
Berthold Penetrameter
A spark eroded cruciform pattern is displayed. Sensitivity governed by the shims
inserted.
0

3 1

2
ASME Penetrameter
The penetrameter is made up of tight low carbon steel pie sections which are
furnace brazed together.
The furnace brazed sections should not exceed 1/32” max. The penetrameter is 1/8”
thick & is covered by a copper plate 0.010” thick ± 0.001”.
The indications displayed are the brazed joinsts between the joined pie sections.

Non-ferrous Handle
 Magnetic inks & powders: BS-4069-1982 edition. Magnetic flaw detection inks &
powders
Composition:
Magnetic inks – fluorescent & non-fluorescent
Whether made up or supplied as concentrates they shall consist of finely divided
ferromagnetic particles & a suitable carrier liquid. They shall form a uniform suspension
when agitated.
The composition of the inks shall be as follows:
a) Ferromagnetic particles (including adherent non-magnetic pigments)
i) Non-fluorescent inks, not less than 1.25% & not more than 3.5% by volume)
ii) Fluorescent inks: not less than 0.1% & not more than 0.3% by volume)
b) Other solid constituent (if present)
non-fluorescent inks not more than 10% by mass of
fluorescent inks the ferromagnetic content
c) Carrier fluid shall represent the remainder
Particles of the testing medium must possess two important properties:
1. High Permeability
2. Low Retentivity

Magnetic particles containing these characteristics will give maximum response in a

leakage field. But will not remain magnetized when the field is removed.

The size of the particles used in the dry method varies but they will usually all pass
through a 100-mesh screen.

The shape of the magnetic particle should be spherical & must have a high degree
of mobility & still have substantial attractive power. Round smooth particles offer
good mobility but have low attractive power. Long, slender, jagged particles have
excellent attractive power, but do not have the mobility to move in a leakage
field.
In the wet method, magnetic oxides of iron are used because they are extremely
fine & have a lower permeability than the metallic dry particles.

The particle size must be small in the wet method to permit the particles to remain
in suspension in the liquid.

Mobility is important because when the particles are brought into a leakage field
they must be able to move, to form a pattern or indication.

In the dry method, mobility is assisted by dusting or blowing the particles over the
surface of the specimen. Mobility can also be assisted by vibrating the specimen
after the particles have been dusted on the surface.

Alternating current also assists mobility, since the alternating field causes the
particles to “dance”.

In the wet method mobility is greatly assisted because the particles are
suspended in a liquid bath.
Visibility is important in magnetic particle testing & a good light source is
essential. Magnetic particles are usually available in grey, red & black and the
choice of color is determined by the best contrast with the specimen surface.
Fluorescent particles are commonly used in the wet method to aid visibility but
this requires the use of a black light.
The wet suspensions (bath) used in the wet method consist of a liquid in which
the particles are suspended.

The particles used are obtainable in a highly concentrated form & may be either
fluorescent or non-fluorescent.

To achieve the required test sensitivity, the degree of particle concentration in the
bath must be correct.

Agitation must be constant while the bath is in use to maintain the particles in
suspension.

Agitation is usually accomplished by electrically driven pumps. The bath should

be checked daily due to evaporation & loss of particles that are removed from the
bath by the specimen.
The settling test is essential to check the strength of the bath & is accomplished
by gravity settling in a graduated pear-shaped centrifuge tube

1. Agitate the suspension thoroughly to assure

particle distribution.
2. Fill 100cc sample from the delivery hose
into the centrifuge tube.
3. Demagnetize, if necessary (when clumping
occurs in the tube)
4. Allow settling for 30 minutes. The reading should be between 1.2 &
5. Take reading & record in log. 2.4cc for a non-fluorescent bath &
between 0.1 & 0.4cc for a fluorescent
6. Adjust bath, either by adding particles or bath as shown below (these data are
vehicles, if necessary. guidelines & will vary from one
specification to another)
Magnetic particle applications: Prior to discussing the applications, some
previously mentioned principles are recapped:
Several different bases are used for classifying
magnetizing methods:
Factors controlling test sensitivity:
1. Whether or not the magnetizing force is
1) Degree of material magnetization
maintained during the application of the
medium, this includes the residual & 2) Direction of field
continuous methods.
3) Condition of magnetic inks
2. The character of the field utilized for
4) Surface condition of material
magnetization which includes the circular
& longitudinal methods. 5) Viewing conditions
3. The type of magnetizing current used
which may be either AC, DC or HWDC
Factors influencing MPI technique selection:
1) Continuous or residual viewing. Continuous viewing is carried out whilst the magnetic field
is applied to the component. Residual viewing takes place after the component has been
magnetized. *Best condition – combination of both methods.
2) The component shape – is it?
a) Bar, rod b) Sphere c) Tube d) Plate
e) Rings f) Multi-angular g) L/D ratios
3) Surface finish/condition – welded, machined, dressed, cast. Forged, extruded, heat treated
etc.
4) Method of fabrication
5) Service history of component.
6) Accessibility of work area of component – restrictions
7) Component material & its service requirements.
8) Resources available.
9) Environment – inks, powders etc.
10) Defect to be detected.
Residual Method – The medium is applied after the specimen has been magnetized &
the magnetizing force removed. This method is not used on specimens that have
low retentivity.
Continuous Method – The magnetizing operation is conducted simultaneously with the
application of the dry powder or wet suspension.
Circular Magnetization Procedure – Where it is necessary to pass a current through
the specimen, care must be exercised to prevent arcing or overheating at the
contact areas.
All contact areas must be clean & suitable head pressure must be exerted to insure
uniform magnetization.
Longitudinal Magnetization Procedures – When a solenoid or coil is used to
magnetize the specimen, it should be no larger than necessary to accommodate the
specimen.
Alternating Current – AC is used when the discontinuities are suspected to be on the
surface of the specimen.
Direct Current – To obtain indications of discontinuities that may be subsurface, direct
current (DC) or half-wave rectified current (HWDC) should be used.
Testing medium (Powders & Suspensions): Dry powder is commonly used for
testing weldments where the prod method is employed. The powder is sprinkled on
the surface while the magnetizing current is flowing.
Liquid medium (non-fluorescent) can be used for both we residual & wet continuous
methods. The particles are coated with a fluorescent dye which, when inspected
under a black light, fluoresce brilliantly.
The bath strength can be checked by the settling test described in lesson 6. The
frequency of the test is determined by the degree of bath usage with the strength
usually dependent upon the manufacturers’ specifications.
Surface Preparation: Prior to magnetic particle testing, the specimen should be
thoroughly cleaned. Cleaning may involve removal of flake, slag, heavy build-up of
paint, rust, grease or other organic material that may interfere with the test results.
The smoother the surface & the more uniform the color. The favorable are the
conditions for formation of a magnetic particle indication.
Location of discontinuities: Discontinuities can be located either on or directly
below the surface of the specimen.
Discontinuities located on the surface appear as sharp, distinct lines, whereas
discontinuities located below the surface appear as irregular, rough, hazy
indications.
Demagnetization Requirements: If a specimen is to be magnetized in a second
direction, i.e. circular magnetization followed by longitudinal magnetization. The
last applied field will drive out the residual field form the preceding magnetization.
However, this will happen only if the magnetizing force last applied indicator is equal
to or higher than the previous residual field.
A field indicator is used after performing demagnetization on an article that has been
circularly magnetized to determine if the field strength is reduced to the desired
level.
Large specimens can be found difficult to demagnetize completely shifting the
specimen to align it in an east-west position from an original north-south position
facilities demagnetization. The reason for this is the influence of the earth’s
magnetic field.
Application of magnetic particle testing procedures: The remainder of this
lesson contains typical applications of magnetic particle testing. Additional
applications are discussed on pages 5-4 through 5-13 in the classroom
training handbook.
The magnetic particle technicians must have a good understanding of the
reasons for applying the different techniques to the same part. It is even
more important to be able to select the proper technique & procedure to
obtain the best results.
 Magnetization of a solid A
B
cylindrical specimen: What C
methods must be used to find all
of the discontinuities shown in
the bar?

Head shot (circular magnetization): Inspect for

discontinuities showing a longitudinal indication.

Field

Crack

Current
Coil shot (longitudinal magnetization): Inspect for transverse indications

6 to 9” Max 6 to 9” Max

Field

Current
Coil
Cracks

Magnetization of a large gear: What methods must be used to find all of the
discontinuities in the gear?
Head shot (circular magnetization) with central conductor: Inspect for
discontinuities perpendicular to the circular field.
Head shot (circular magnetization) using at least two shots & turning the gear
90˚

Circular Conductor
Head

Cracks
Current
Magnetization of short hollow cylinders: What methods must be used t find
the discontinuities on the inside & outside of this ring?

Head shot (circular magnetization) with central

conductor
Magnetic
Field
Head

Cracks
Current
Central Conductor
If necessary the ring can also be magnetized by two head shots across the
diameter or by placing in a coil this will produce a longitudinal field which will
detect discontinuities in the direction shown :

Magnetization of hollow cylindrical

specimens: What methods must be used to find
the discontinuities on the inside & outside of the
cylinder?
Coil shot (longitudinal magnetization): Inspect for discontinuities showing
transverse indications on the inside & outside of the cylinder as shown
below:

Iron Particles

Current
Head shot (circular magnetization) with central conductor: inspect for
longitudinal discontinuities on the inside & outside of the cylinder as shown
below –

Central Conductor
Magnetic Field (copper bar)

Test Article Cracks

Current
Magnetization of irregularly shaped specimens: Each specimen must be
thoroughly analyzed to determine which methods will be necessary to find
discontinuities in all directions.
The part shown below requires the use of a central conductor & tow additional
head shots.
Magnetization of large weldments
or castings: Circular
magnetization of large specimens
is usually accomplished with the
use of prods. Longitudinal
magnetization of large specimens
is usually done with either a yoke
or by wrapping the part with the
cables.
The weldments shown below requires
a crisscrossed pattern in applying
the magnetizing current with prods
to insure 100% coverage of
discontinuities.
The large shaft shown below requires the cables to be wrapped at several
different locations to insure 100% coverage. However, longitudinal
discontinuities will not be detected with this method.

30”
1st shot

3”

2nd shot
15”
 Discontinuities can be divided into three general categories: - Inherent,
Processing & Service.

1. Inherent Discontinuities are usually formed when the metal is molten Inherent wrought
discontinuities relate to the melting, casting & solidification of a cast article. Usually
caused by inherent variables such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessive pouring
temperature & entrapped gases.
2. Processing Discontinuities are usually related to the various manufacturing process
such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating & plating.
3. Service Discontinuities are related to the various service conditions such as stress,
corrosion, fatigue & erosion.
During the manufacturing process, many discontinuities that were subsurface (&
not detectable by magnetic particle inspection) will be made open to the
surface by machining, grinding etc.
Remember that discontinuities are not necessarily defects – Any indication that
is found by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it can be identified &
evaluated as to the effect it will have on the service of the part.

Classification of discontinuities – The greatest aid in interpretation is a

knowledge of what is likely to be present in any give instance.
Knowing the history of a part, what it is made of & what processes it has been
through all form important considerations.
Every magnetic particle pattern produced is due to some magnetic disturbance
set up in a leakage field. The inspector must be able to determine whether
there is a serious crack or some in signification or unimportant non-relevant
indication.
Surface indication produce sharp, distinct, clean-cut & tightly held indication
patterns.

Subsurface indications tend to produce indications which are less distinct

forming diffused or fuzzy patterns.

Non-relevant Indications –This is a group of non-relevant magnetic

disturbance not due to discontinuities or actual breaks in the metal.

A common non-relevant indication could be caused by a constriction in a metal

through which lines of force must pass, such as, the shaft with a keyway
shown below:
1. Excessive magnetizing current.
2. Structural design of the article
3. Variances of permeability within the article.
Over magnetization could cause a non-relevant indication due to the leakage
field attracting particles
Excessive magnetization can also cause non-relevant indications on a simple
square object as shown on the circularly magnetized part
Abrupt changes of section of a longitudinally magnetized part will cause flux
leakage where the lines of force leave or enter the part causing non-relevant
indication.

Permeability differences in the part can also cause non-relevant indications.

Cold working a metal can change the permeability.

Example: Bending & straightening a nail will cause the metal to become hard at
the point of bending, when the nail is magnetized there will be a flux leakage
where the permeability is changed

A non-relevant indication would also appear across the shank of a cold chisel
where the heat-treated portion ends & the soft shank begins.
Problems in identifying non-relevant indications can be reduced if the operator
remembers that:
1. They can be identified by a fuzzy, rather than a sharp, indication.
2. They are usually associated with some feature of construction like a keyway or
sharp corner.
3. They are usually uniform in direction & size.

False indications are caused when particles are accumulated & held mechanically
or by gravity. If the part has a rough surface this may cause false indications.
TRUE INDICATION: Those indication which are caused by defect.
Steps to be followed for MPI of job AC with fluorescent powder using black light.

Switch on block light warm-up time 5 minutes.

Check powder concentration.
Pre-cleaning of sample.
Calculate the current required for head shot/central conductor & coil shot.
Besides the sequence of operations circular magnetization or longitudinal
magnetization.

If demagnetization of part is there, 1st create a circular field by head shot or central
conductor method then create a longitudinal field in the coil & then carry out
demagnetization.
If demagnetization of part is not there, 1st create a longitudinally field in coil carry out
inspection. Then create circular field with head shot or central conductor carry out
inspection & leave the component in circularly magnetized state.
Check the instrument connection. It should be connected to AC supply
Put the component in the fixture coil or zig & switch on the instrument & adjust
the current (amps)
Shake the powder solution properly put the ASTM field indicator on job & switch
on the instrument & spray the powder on field indicator check sensitivity. It
required increase the current (amps)
Switch on instrument, spray powder on the job, keep the instrument on for a little
longer time still the excess powder is drain out then switch off the instrument.
Observe the indication with black light & report.
Turn the component by 180˚ in coil or zig & repeat the inspection.
Carry out demagnetization.
Check with residual field indicator whether demagnetization is proper or not. If
required demagnetize again
Magnetic Particle Test Report
REPORT NO. : RNS/KBL/08/06/06 DATE :18/5/06
CLIENT : M/s. Kirloskar Brothers Heat No. : HF05SGI01
Limited, Kondhapuri. HF05SGI21
SCOPE : Magnetic Particle Testing of MATERIALS : Mat-SGI, IS:1865, 450/10
Castings
ITEM : 1600mm Butterfly valve body REF. PROCEDURE : As per ASMT See-V, Article – 7, Appendix – 6
& Disc – 1 no. each
TECHNICAL DETAILS
EQUIPMENT USED : C – Equip Make TECHNIQUE : Wet visible
Model – Y7 Continuous
POWDER : Dyeglo – B make VERIFICATION OF : By lifting plate of
(Non-Fluorescent) MAGNETIC FLUX 4.5kg
CURRENT : AC CALIBRATION BLOCK : By Pie Gauge
USED TO DETERMINE Field Indicator
STRENGTH
SURFACE FINISH : As Cast Method : Yoke
BATH CONCENTRATION : 1.4 m1/100ml Tested At : Kirloskar Brothers Ltd.,
Tested By : Mr. Tushar R. Brahme Tested on : 15/05/06
(ASNT MT Level-II)
OBSERVATION: No linear indication observed. Acceptable.
Preservation of Indications

It is often desirable to preserve magnetic particle indications for future reference.

There are several methods used to accomplish this purpose.
Lacquer Technique requires the indication to be sprayed with a clear lacquer &
later photographed.
Direct Photography is used to record the indication immediately after performing
the test.
Magnetic Rubber uses a process where the magnetic particles are in solution with
a liquid rubber. The rubber is allowed to harden on the part after the magnetic field
has arranged the magnetic particles.
Transparent Tape Transfer is commonly used to lift the indication from the part.
The tape can be photographed or placed directly into a permanent record book.
Indications

Relevant Indication:

An indication of an imperfection may be larger than the imperfection that causes

it,; however, the size of the indication is the basis for acceptance evaluation.
Only indications which have any dimension greater than 1/16 in (1.5mm) shall
be considered relevant.
Linear & rounded indications:

A linear indication is one having a length greater than three times the width
A rounded indication is one of circular or elliptical shape with a length equal to
or less than three times its width.
Any questionable or doubtful indications shall be re-examined to determine
whether or not they are relevant.
Acceptance Standards

These acceptance standards shall apply unless other more restrictive standards
are specified for specific materials or applications within this Division.

All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:

Relevant linear indications

Relevant rounded indications greater than 3/16 in (5mm)

Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by 1/16 in

(15mm) or less, edge to edge