SQL

Database Management System

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 SQL Overview
• Structured Query Language

• The standard for relational database management

systems (RDBMS)

• RDBMS: A database management system that

manages data as a collection of tables in which all
relationships are represented by common values in
related tables

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Database Languages

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DDL

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Naming Convention

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Datatype

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CREATE

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EXAMPLE TABLE CREATION

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Overall table definitions

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ALTER

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EXAMPLE ALTER

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EXAMPLE ALTER

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The Database Model

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 Tasks to be Completed Before Using
a New RDBMS

• Create a database structure

– RDBMS creates physical files that will hold a database
– Differs from one RDBMS to another
• Authentication: Process DBMS uses to verify that only
registered users access the data
– Required for the creation of tables
– User should log on to RDBMS using user ID and
password created by a database administrator

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 Primary Key and Foreign
Key
• Primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE
specification example roll no.
• RDBMS will automatically enforce referential integrity for foreign
keys
• Command sequence ends with a semicolon

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 Data Manipulation
Commands
INSERT: Command to insert data into table
• Syntax - INSERT INTO tablename VALUES();
• Used to add table rows with NULL and NOT NULL
attributes

COMMIT: Command to save changes

• Syntax - COMMIT [WORK];

• Ensures database update integrity

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 Data Manipulation
Commands
SELECT: Command to list the contents
• Syntax - SELECT columnlist FROM tablename;
• Wildcard character(*): Substitute for other
characters/command

UPDATE: Command to modify data

• Syntax - UPDATE tablename SET columnname =
expression [, columnname = expression] [WHERE
conditionlist];
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 SELECT Statement
□ Used for queries on single or multiple tables
□ Clauses of the SELECT statement:
□ SELECT
□ List the columns (and expressions) to be returned from the query
□ FROM
□ Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained
□ WHERE
□ Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result
□ GROUP BY
□ Indicate categorization of results. It is grouped by specific column
□ HAVING
□ Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be
included
□ ORDER BY
□ Sorts the result according to specified criteria
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SQL statement
processing
order

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 SELECT Example
• Find products with standard price less than $275

Table :Comparison Operators in SQL

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 SELECT Example Using Alias
□ Alias is an alternative column or table name

□ Here, CUST is a table alias and Name is a

column alias
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 SELECT Example Using a
Function
□ Using the COUNT aggregate function to find totals

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDERLINE_T

WHERE ORDERID = 1004;

Note: with aggregate functions, you can’t have single-valued

columns included in the SELECT clause, unless they are included
in the GROUP BY clause.

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 SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
□ AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing
conditions in WHERE clause

Note: the LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using

wildcards. For example, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’ indicates that
all strings that have any number of characters preceding the
word “Desk” will be allowed.
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Boolean query A without use of parenthes

By default,
processing order
of Boolean
operators is NOT,
then AND, then
OR

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 SELECT Example–Boolean Operators

With parentheses, you can override normal precedence rules. In

this case parentheses make the OR take place before the AND.

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Boolean query Bwith use of
parentheses

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 Sorting Results with ORDER
BY Clause
• Sort the results first by STATE, and within a state by the CUSTOMER
NAME

Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include

rows whose CustomerState value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It
is more efficient than separate OR conditions.
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 Categorizing Results Using GROUP BY
Clause
• For use with aggregate functions
– Scalar aggregate: single value returned from SQL query with
aggregate function
– Vector aggregate: multiple values returned from SQL query with
aggregate function (via GROUP BY)

You can use single-value fields with aggregate functions if they are
included in the GROUP BY clause. 28
 Qualifying Results by
Categories Using the
HAVING Clause

□ For use with GROUP BY

Like a WHERE clause, but it operates on groups (categories), not on

individual rows. Here, only those groups with total numbers greater
than 1 will be included in final result.

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 Data Manipulation
Commands
WHERE condition
• Specifies the rows to be selected

ROLLBACK: Command to restore the database

• Syntax - ROLLBACK;
• Undoes the changes since the last COMMIT
command
DELETE: Command to delete
• Syntax - DELETE FROM table name
• [WHERE conditionlist]; 30
 Special Operators
BETWEEN
• Checks whether attribute value is within a range

IS NULL
• Checks whether attribute value is null

LIKE
• Checks whether attribute value matches given string pattern

IN
• Checks whether attribute value matches any value within a value list

EXISTS
• Checks if subquery returns any rows
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SQL Data Definition
Command

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SQL Data Manipulation
Commands

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THANK YOU