MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

WELDING INTRO

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 JOINING PROCESS
• Welding is a joining process.
• Joining may be preferred for one or more of
the following reasons:-
– Product is impossible or uneconomical to
manufacture as a single piece.
– The product is easier to manufacture in individual
components, which are then assembled, then as
a single piece.

2
 NEED FOR JOINING
– Different properties may be desirable for
functional purpose of the product.
– Transportation of the product in individual
components are more economical than
transporting it as a single piece

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 JOINING PROCESS
• Three joining techniques are commonly used.
– Mechanical joints
– Adhesives
– Welding and allied processes

4
MECHANICAL JOINTS

5
ADHESIVES

6
WELDING JOINTS

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 WELDING DEFINATION
• Welding is a process of permanent joining two
materials (usually metals) through localised
coalescence resulting from a suitable combination of
temperature, pressure and metallurgical
conditions.
• Depending upon the combination of temperature and
pressure from a high temperature with no pressure to
a high pressure with low temperature, a wide range
of welding processes has been developed.

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 WELDING DEFINATION
• Welding is a fabrication process that joins
materials, usually metals, by causing
coalescence.
• This is often done by melting the workpieces
and adding a filler material to form a pool of
molten material (the weld pool) that cools to
become a strong joint, with pressure
sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or
by itself, to produce the weld.
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 ADVANTAGES
• Strong and tight joining.
• Cost effectiveness.
• Simplicity of welded structures design.
• Welding processes may be mechanized and
automated.

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 DISADVANTAGES
• Internal stresses, distortions and changes of
micro-structure in the weld region.
• Harmful effects: light, ultra violate radiation,
fumes, high temperature.

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BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES STRUCTURES

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AUTOMOTIVE, SHIP AND AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTIONS

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PIPE LINES

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TANKS AND VESSELS

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RAILROADS

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MACHINERY ELEMENTS

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 CLASSIFICATION
• There are two groups of welding processes
according to the state of the base material
during the welding process:
a) Liquid-state welding (fusion welding )
b) Solid-state welding.

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 a.Liquid-state (fusion welding )
• Fusion welding is defined as the melting
together and joining of materials by means of
heat, usually supplied by chemical or electrical
means; filler metals may or may not be used.
• Fusion welding is composed of consumable and
non consumable-electrode arc welding and high-
energy-beam welding processes.
• Fusion welding is by far the more important
category.
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 a.Liquid-state (fusion welding )
• The fusion category includes the most widely
used welding processes, which can be organized
into the following general groups
– Arc welding
– Resistance Welding (also Solid-state welding)
– Oxyfuel gas welding
– Other fusion welding (Electron beam & Laser
beam)
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 b.Solid-state welding
• Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in
which joining results from application of pressure
alone or a combination of heat and pressure.
• Joining takes place without fusion; consequently,
there is no liquid (molten) phase in the joint.
• If heat is used, the temperature in the process is
below the melting point of the metals being
welded.
• No filler metal is utilized.
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 b.Solid-state welding
• Representative welding processes in this group
include:
– Friction welding
– Diffusion welding
– Ultrasonic welding
– Resistance Welding ( also fusion welding )

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 1. Arc Welding
• Arc welding is a fusion-welding process, in which
heat is generated by an electric arc struck between
an electrode and the work piece.
• Any arc welding method is based on an electric
circuit consisting of the following parts:
– Power supply (AC or DC);
– Welding electrode;
– Work piece;
– Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode
and work piece to the power supply.

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1. Arc Welding

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 1. Arc Welding

The basic configuration and electrical circuit of an arc-welding process.

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 1. Arc Welding
• Electric arc between the electrode and work piece
closes the electric circuit.
• An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit.
• It is sustained by the presence of a thermally ionized
column of gas (called a plasma) through which
current flows.
• The arc temperature may reach 5500°C, which is
sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining
them.
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 1. Arc Welding
• A pool of molten metal, consisting of base
metal(s) and filler metal (if one is used) is formed
near the tip of the electrode.
• In most arc-welding processes, filler metal is
added during the operation to increase the
volume and strength of the weld joint.
• Chemical compositions of filler metal is similar to
that of work piece.

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 1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES
• CONSUMABLE electrodes - are used in SMAW,
SAW & GMAW or TIG.

• NON-CONSUMABLE electrodes – are used in

GTAW.

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 1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES
• CONSUMABLE electrodes provide the source of
the filler metal in arc welding.
• These electrodes are available in two principal
forms:
– rods (also called sticks) and
– wire.
• Welding rods are typically 225 to 450 long and
9.5 mm or less in diameter.

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 1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES
• The problem with consumable welding RODS, at
least in production welding operations, is that
they must be changed periodically, reducing arc
time of the welder.
• Consumable weld WIRE has the advantage that
it can be continuously fed into the weld pool
from spools containing long lengths of wire, thus
avoiding the frequent interruptions that occur
when using welding sticks.
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 1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES
• Non-consumable electrodes are made of
tungsten (or carbon, rarely), which resists melting
by the arc.
• Despite its name, a non-consumable electrode is
gradually depleted during the welding process
(vaporization is the principal mechanism),
analogous to the gradual wearing of a cutting
tool in a machining operation.

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 1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES
• For arc welding processes that utilize non-
consumable electrodes, any filler metal used in
the operation must be supplied by means of a
separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.
• If no filler rod is used with non-consumable
electrode then the process is called Autogenous.

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 1. Arc Welding - ARC SHIELDING
• At the high temperatures in arc welding, the
metals being joined are chemically reactive to
oxygen , nitrogen , and hydrogen in the air.
• The mechanical properties of the weld joint can
be seriously degraded by these reactions.
• Thus, some means to shield the arc from the
surrounding air is provided in nearly all arc
welding processes.

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 1. Arc Welding - ARC SHIELDING
• Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the
electrode tip, arc, and molten weld pool with a
blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit
exposure of the weld metal to air.
• Common shielding gases include argon and
helium, both of which are inert.
• In the welding of ferrous metals with certain Arc
Welding processes, oxygen and carbon dioxide are
used, usually in combination with Ar and/or He.
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 1. Arc Welding - FLUX
• A flux is a substance used to prevent the
formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate
removal.
• During welding, the flux melts and becomes a
liquid slag, covering the operation and
protecting the molten weld metal.
• The slag hardens upon cooling and must be
removed later by chipping or brushing.
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 1. Arc Welding - FLUX
• Flux is usually formulated to serve several additional
functions:
– provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
– stabilize the arc,
– provide a protective slag coating to accumulate
impurities, prevent oxidation, and slow the cooling of the
weld metal,
– affect arc penetration (the depth of melting in the
workpiece)
– add alloying elements to the weld,
– to reduce spatter.
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 1. Arc Welding - FLUX
• The method of flux application differs for each
process. The delivery techniques include
1. pouring granular flux onto the welding operation,
2. using a stick electrode coated with flux material in
which the coating melts during welding to cover
the operation, and
3. using tubular electrodes (flux cored) in which flux
is contained in the core and released as the
electrode is consumed.
37
 1. Arc Welding – POWER SOURCES
• Two types:
a) Constant Current (Drooping)
b) Constant Voltage

38
• Before discussing the question of CC vs. CV, we must first understand the
effects of both current and voltage with arc welding. Current effects the
melt-off rate or consumption rate of the electrode, whether it be a stick
electrode or wire electrode. The higher the current level, the faster the
electrode melts or the higher the melt-off rate, measured in pounds per
hour (lbs/hr) or kilograms per hour (kg/hr). The lower the current, the
lower the electrode’s melt-off rate becomes. Voltage controls the length of
the welding arc, and resulting width and volume of the arc cone. As voltage
increases, the arc length gets longer (and arc cone broader), while as it
decreases, the arc length gets shorter (and arc cone narrower). Figure
2 illustrates the effect of voltage in the arc.  

39
• Now the type of welding process you are using, and its associated level of
automation, determines which type of welding output is most stable and
thus preferred. The Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process (aka
MMAW or stick) and the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process (aka
TIG) are both generally considered manual processes. This means you
control all welding variables by hand. You hold the electrode holder or TIG
torch in your hand and control travel angle, work angle, travel speed, arc
length and the rate in which the electrode is fed into the joint all by
hand.  With the SMAW and GTAW processes (i.e. the manual processes),
CC is the preferred type of output from the power source. 
• conversely, the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process (aka MIG) and
the Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) process (aka flux core) are both
generally considered semi-automatic processes. This means that you still
hold the welding gun in your hand and control travel angle, work angle,
travel speed and contact tip to work distance (CTWD)) by hand. However,
the rate in which the electrode is fed into the joint (known as wire feed
speed (WFS)) is controlled automatically with a constant speed wire
feeder. With the GMAW and FCAW processes (i.e. the semi-automatic
processes), CV is the preferred output. 
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• With the two manual processes, SMAW and GTAW, you are controlling all variables by hand (which is
why they are the two most operator skill intensive processes). You need to have the electrode melt at
a consistent rate, so that you can feed it into the joint at a consistent rate.  To do this, the welding
output needs to maintain current at a constant level (i.e., CC), so that the resulting melt-off rate is
consistent.  Voltage is a less controlling variable. With manual processes, it is very difficult to
consistently maintain the same arc length because you are also constantly feeding the electrode into
the joint. Voltage varies as a result of changes in arc length. With CC output, current is your preset,
controlling variable and voltage is simply measured (typically as an average value) while welding.
• If you tried to weld with the SMAW process for example using CV output, current, and the resulting
melt-off rate, would vary too much. As you were traveling along the joint (trying to be consistent with
all other welding variables), the electrode would melt at a faster rate, then a slower rate, then a faster
rate, etc. You would constantly need to change the rate in which you fed the electrode into the joint.
This is an impracticable condition, thus making CV output undesirable.              
• When you switch to a semi-automatic process, such as GMAW or FCAW, something changes. While
you are still controlling many of the welding variables by hand, the electrode is being fed into the joint
at a constant speed (based on the particular WFS you have set on the wire feeder). Now you want the
arc length to be consistent. To do this, the welding output needs to maintain voltage at a constant
level (i.e., CV), so that the resulting arc length is consistent.  Current is a less controlling variable. It is
proportional to, or a result of, the WFS. As WFS increases, so does current and vice versa. With CV
output, voltage and WFS are your preset, controlling variables and current is simply measured while
welding.  
• If you tried to weld with the GMAW or FCAW processes using CC output, voltage, and the resulting arc
length, would vary too much. As voltage decreased, arc length would become very short and the
electrode would stub into the plate. Then as voltage increased, arc length would become very long
and the electrode would burn back towards the contact tip. The electrode would be constantly
stubbing into the plate, then burning back towards the tip, then stubbing into the plate, etc. This is an
impracticable condition, thus making CC output undesirable
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 a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE

• In Constant Current [CC] power source,

variation in welding current with arc voltage
(due to fluctuations in arc length) is very small.
• welding current remains more or less constant
in spite of fluctuations in arc voltage/length.
• suitable for those welding processes where
large fluctuation in arc length is observed like in
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) and
Tungsten Inert Gas TIG welding.
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a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE
V VO Open circuit voltage

VO IS Short-Circuit Current

Large change in voltage 25%

Arc Voltage

Small change in current 4%

IS I 43
 a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE

• The constant current (CC) welding machine is

called a drooper because of this curve.
• A 25% change in voltage results in only a 4%
change in amperage.
• The current change is so slight that the current
is considered constant.

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 a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE

• Following points should be kept in mind

regarding CC power source:
– It has high OCV (open circuit voltage:- the voltage
when the welding is not being performed).
– High OCV ensure easy initiation and maintenance of
arc.
– Low short circuit current.

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 b). CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE

• In CV power source, very small variation in arc

voltage (due to fluctuation in arc length) causes
significant change in welding current.
• Since arc voltage remains almost constant
therefore this type of power sources are called
constant voltage power source.
• Constant voltage power source does not have
true constant voltage output. It has slightly
downward or negative slope.
46
 b). CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE

• suitable for all those welding processes where

small fluctuations in arc length can take place,
like in semiautomatic welding processes MIG &
SAW .

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b). CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE

V VO Open circuit voltage

Small change in voltage

VO

2-3 Volt per 100

A
Large change in current

I
48
 b). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE

• Following points should be kept in mind

regarding CV power source:
– It has slightly low OCV as compared to CC power
source.
– High short circuit current.

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 1. Arc Welding- TYPES
A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
(MMAW)
B. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
C. Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW)
D. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

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MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

MMAW or SMAW

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1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

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1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is an AW

process that uses a consumable electrode
consisting of a filler metal rod coated with
chemicals that provide flux and shielding.

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1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

• The filler metal used in the rod must be compatible

with the metal to be welded, the composition
usually being very close to that of the base metal.
• The coating consists of powdered cellulose (i.e.,
cotton and wood powders) mixed with oxides,
carbonates, and other ingredients, held together
by a silicate binder.
• Metal powders are also sometimes included in the
coating to increase the amount of filler metal and
to add alloying elements.
54
1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

• The heat of the welding process melts the

coating to provide a protective atmosphere and
slag for the welding operation.
• It also helps to stabilize the arc and regulate the
rate at which the electrode melts.
• Currents typically used in SMAW range between
30 and 300 A at voltages from 15 to 45 V.

55
1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

• Selection of the proper power parameters

depends on the metals being welded, electrode
type and length, and depth of weld penetration
required.
• Shielded metal arc welding is usually performed
manually.
• Common applications include construction,
pipelines, machinery structures, shipbuilding, job
shop fabrication, and repair work.
56
1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

• It is preferred over oxyfuel welding for thicker

sections—above 5 mm—because of its higher
power density.
• The equipment is portable and low cost, making
SMAW highly versatile and probably the most
widely used of the AW processes.
• Base metals include steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys.

57
1.A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding

• It is not used or seldom used for aluminum and

its alloys, copper alloys, and titanium.

58
 POLARITY
• When using a DC power source, the question of
whether to use electrode negative or positive
polarity arises.  
• Some electrodes operate on both DC straight and
reverse polarity, and others on DC negative or DC
positive polarity only.  
• Direct current flows in one direction in an electrical
circuit and the direction of current flow and the
composition of the electrode coating will have a
definite effect on the welding arc and weld bead.  
59
 POLARITY
• Figure shows the connections and effects of
straight and reverse polarity.

60
 DC Electrode Negative (DCEN) or Straight Polarity

• DC Electrode Negative (DCEN) or Straight Polarity

causes heat to build up on the workpiece, thereby
increases the weld penetration.

(-) Electrode

DC Bead
(+)

Workpiece 61
 DC Electrode Positive (DCEP) or Reverse Polarity

• Reversing the polarity ie. DC electrode positive (DCEP)

increase the electrode melting rate and decrease the
depth of the weld.

(+) Electrode

DC
Bead
(-)

Workpiece 62
 AC
• With alternating current the polarity changes over 100
times per second, creating an even heat distribution and
providing a balance between electrode melting rate and
penetration.
Electrode

AC Bead

Workpiece 63
Submerged arc welding(SAW)

64
 Submerged arc welding(SAW)
• Submerged arc welding(SAW) is an arc-welding
process that uses a continuous, consumable bare
wire electrode, and arc shielding is provided by a
cover of granular flux.
• No shielding gas is used in the submerged arc
welding (SAW) process.
• The arc is maintained beneath the blanket of flux
therefore no arc is visible (only a few small
flames being visible sometimes).
65
 Blanket of
Slag (Solidify Flux)
Granular Flux

Solidify Weld
Metal 66
67
 Submerged arc welding(SAW)
• The portion of the flux closest to the arc is
melted, mixing with the molten weld metal to
remove impurities and then solidifying on top of
the weld joint to form a glass-like slag.
• The slag and unfused flux granules on top
provide good protection from the atmosphere
and good thermal insulation for the weld area,
resulting in relatively slow cooling and a high-
quality weld joint, noted for toughness and
ductility. 68
 Submerged arc welding(SAW)
• The unfused flux remaining after welding can be
recovered and reused.
• The solid slag covering the weld must be chipped
away, usually by manual means.

69
 APPLICATIONS
• Submerged arc welding is widely used in steel
fabrication for structural shapes (e.g., welded I-
beams); longitudinal and circumferential seams
for
– large diameter pipes,
– tanks,
– pressure vessels,
– welded components for heavy machinery,
– thick sheets for shipbuilding etc.
70
 Shipbuilding often
requires long welded
seams for joining thick
plates, and process like
Submerged Arc
Welding is the
preferred choice for
this task
Image source: https://www.motorship.com/news101/ships-and-shipyards/system-solutions-
71
for-economical-welding
 Video Link

https://
www.youtube.com/
watch?v=H6QGLGJ-BOE

72
 APPLICATIONS
• In these kinds of applications, steel plates of 25-mm
thickness and heavier are routinely welded by this
process.
• The process is not recommended for high-carbon steels,
tool steels, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, lead, or
zinc.
• Low-carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels can be
readily welded by SAW.
• The process is not recommended for high-carbon steels,
tool steels, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, lead, or
zinc. 73
 Characteristics/ Advantages
– High welding speeds,
– high deposition rates,
– deep penetration, and
– high cleanliness (due to the flux action) are all
characteristic of submerged arc welding.
• Because the arc is totally submerged, high welding
currents can be used (600 to 2000 A) ( 5 to 10
times higher than MMAW).
• A welding speed of 0.75 m/min in 2.5-cm-thick
steel plate is typical. 74
 Characteristics/ Advantages
• Single-pass welds can be made with penetrations
up to 25 mm, and greater thicknesses can be
joined by multiple passes.
• Because the metal is deposited in fewer passes
than with alternative processes, there is less
possibility of entrapped slag or voids, and weld
quality is further enhanced.
• For even higher deposition rates, multiple
electrode wires can be employed.
75
 LIMITATIONS
• Limitations to the process include the
– need for extensive flux handling,
– possible contamination of the flux by moisture (leading
to porosity in the weld),
– the large volume of slag that must be removed, and
– shrinkage problems due to the large weld pool.
• The high heat inputs can produce large grain size
structures, and the slow cooling rate may enable
segregation and possible hydrogen or hot cracking.
• Welding is restricted to the horizontal position, since the
flux and slag are held in place by gravity.
76
WELDING PROCESSES

TIG or GTAW

77
FIG 1

78
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• The heat for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
is produced by an electric arc maintained
between a non-consumable tungsten electrode
and the part to be welded.
• The heat-affected zone, the molten metal, and
the tungsten electrode are all shielded from the
atmosphere by a blanket of inert gas fed
through the GTAW torch.

79
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Inert gas is that which is inactive, or deficient in
active chemical properties.
• It does not burn, and adds nothing to or takes
anything from the metal.
• Inert gases such as argon and helium do not
chemically react or combine with other gases.

80
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• They possess no odour and are transparent,
permitting the welder maximum visibility of the
arc.
• In some instances a small amount of reactive
gas such as hydrogen can be added to enhance
travel speeds.

81
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• The torch holding the tungsten electrode is
connected to a shielding gas cylinder as well as
one terminal of the power source, as shown in
Figure 2.

82
FIG 2

83
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• The tungsten electrode is usually in contact with
a water-cooled copper tube, called the contact
tube, which is connected to the welding cable
(cable 1) from the terminal.
• The workpiece is connected to the other
terminal of the power source through a different
cable (cable 2).

84
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• The shielding gas goes through the torch body
and is directed by a nozzle toward the weld pool
to protect it from the air.
• Protection from the air is much better in GTAW
than in SMAW.

85
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Autogenous GTAW welding (without filler metal)
is used in thin square edged sections (2mm),
while V and X type edge preparations are needed
in thicker sections.
• A filler rod is needed for joining thicker
materials.
• The autogeneous process is readily used in
robotics and automation techniques.

86
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• This process is extensively used for welding thin
components of stainless steel, aluminum,
magnesium or titanium alloys as well pieces of
carbon and low alloy steels.

87
 ELECTRODE
• Tungsten is preferred for this process because it
has the highest melting point of all metals.
• The tungsten electrode establishes and maintains
the arc.
• It is said to be a “nonconsumable” in that the
electrode is not melted and included in the weld
pool.
• In fact, great care must be taken so that the
tungsten does not contact the weld pool in any
way, thereby causing a contaminated, faulty weld.
88
 SHIELDING GAS
• Primarily two inert gases are used for shielding
purposes for TIG.
• They are argon and helium.
• Argon, with an atomic weight of 40, is about one
and a half times heavier than air and ten times
heavier than helium which has an atomic weight
of 4.

89
 AR & HELIUM
• Argon and helium are the major shielding gases
used in gas tungsten arc welding.
•  In some applications, mixtures of the two gases
prove advantageous.
• To a lesser extent, hydrogen is mixed with argon
or helium for special applications.
• Note: CO2 cannot be used in this process since it
provides inadequate protection for the hot
tungsten electrode as it tends to oxides the
electrode. 90
 Advantages of the GTAW Process
1. Wide range of metal can be welded.
2. Dissimilar metals can also be joined such as
copper to brass and stainless to mild steel.
3. Narrow heat-affected zone (compared to other
processes like SMAW, GMAW and SAW)
4. Less distortion
5. No Slag: There is no requirement for flux with this
process; therefore, there is no slag to obscure the
welder’s vision of the molten weld pool.
91
 Advantages of the GTAW Process
6. No Sparks or Spatter, No Smoke or Fumes:
7. Improved metallurgical properties stronger,
more ductile and more corrosion resistant
joints.
8. Very thin metals can be welded due to the ease
of controlling the current.

92
 GTAW Disadvantages
• The main disadvantage of the GTAW process is
the low filler metal deposition rate.
• Another disadvantage is that the hand-eye
coordination necessary to accomplish the weld is
difficult to learn, and requires a great deal of
practice to become proficient.
• The arc rays produced by the process tend to be
brighter than those produced by SMAW and
GMAW. This is primarily due to the absence of
visible fumes and smoke. 93
 GTAW Disadvantages
• The increased amounts of ultraviolet rays from the arc also
cause the formation of ozone and nitrous oxides.
• Therefore, care should be taken to protect skin with the
proper clothing and protect eyes with the correct shade lens
in the welding hood.
• Metal thickness of upto 7 mm can be welded only.
• Contamination of tungsten can cause discontinuities in
welding.
(Ozone is formed by the irradiation of the oxygen in the air surrounding and in
the immediate vicinity of the arc with ultraviolet light. Ozone results from the
action of ultraviolet radiation, which “breaks” the surrounding oxygen
molecules. The single oxygen atoms thus formed (O) will be able to react with
other oxygen molecules O2 and form ozone molecules O3) 94
 APPLICATIONS
• Aerospace application.
• Welding of aluminium alloys, steel, copper,
nickel, tin & Zr.
• Aircraft frames, Jet engine castings, Rocket motor
cases etc.
• Precision welding of parts in atomic industry.
• Pipe works required for high pressure steam
lines, chemical and petroleum industries.

95
 APPLICATIONS
• Stainless steel, nickel and its alloys – Ar + 5%
H(increase the arc heating efficiency)
• Aluminium alloys –Ar and He

96
Welding Processes

MIG or GMAW

97
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

• Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc

Welding) is a arc welding process, in which the
weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon,
helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other gas
mixtures).
• Consumable electrode wire, having chemical
composition similar to that of the parent
material, is continuously fed from a spool to
the arc zone.
98
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

• The arc heats and melts both the work pieces

edges and the electrode wire. The fused
electrode material is supplied to the surfaces
of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and
forms joint.
• Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire
(electrode) the process is referred to as a semi-
automatic. The operator controls only the
torch positioning and speed.
99
 Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

• Gas metal arc welding(GMAW) is an AW process

in which the electrode is a consumable bare
metal wire, and shielding is accomplished by
flooding the arc with a gas.
• The bare wire is fed continuously and
automatically from a spool through the welding
gun, as illustrated in Figure.

100
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

Copper nozzle

101
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

102
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

103
 Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)
• Wire diameters ranging from 0.8 to 6.5 mm (1/32–
1/4 in) are used in GMAW, the size depending on
the thickness of the parts being joined and the
desired deposition rate.
• Gases used for shielding include inert gases such as
argon and helium, and active gases such as carbon
dioxide.
• Selection of gases (and mixtures of gases) depends
on the metal being welded, as well as other
factors.
104
 Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

• Inert gases are used for welding aluminum alloys

and stainless steels, while CO2 is commonly used
for welding low and medium carbon steels.
• As there is no electrode flux used therefore there
is no slag covering on the weld bead and thus no
need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag.
• The GMAW process is therefore ideal for making
multiple welding passes on the same joint.

105
 GMAW – Metal Transfer modes
In the GMAW process, the filler metal is transferred from the
electrode to the joint. Depending upon the current, voltage
and the wire feed rate used for given electrode, the metal
transfer is done in different ways. They are
 Short circuit (low voltage – lowest amperage, incomplete
fusion could cause)
 Dip transfer (Like short-circuiting - low voltage – lowest
amperage with high wire feed rate)
 Globular transfer (high voltage-high amperage, high
deposition with high spattering)
 Spray transfer (axial & pulsed) – very high voltage and
amperage (highest), good deposition, high heat
produced, pulsed spray with high to low amperage cycles
due to pulsing cycles) 106
GMAW – Metal Transfer modes

SHORT CIRCUIT &

Dip METAL
TRANSFER

SPRAY TRANSFER

107
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

ADVANTAGES
• Continuous weld may be produced (no
interruptions)
• High level of operators skill is not required
• Slag removal is not required (no slag)

108
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

DISADVANTAGES
• Expensive and non-portable equipment is
required
• Outdoor application are limited because of
effect of wind, dispersing the shielding gas

109
 Resistance Welding (RW)
• Resistance Welding is a welding process, in which work
pieces are welded due to a combination of a pressure
applied to them and a localized heat generated by a high
electric current flowing through the contact area of the
weld.

• The weld is made by a combination of HEAT, PRESSURE,

and TIME.

• Resistance of the material is used for welding by current

flow which causes a localized heating in the part. 110
Resistance Welding (RW)

*https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOAdEIQKZDs
111
 Resistance Welding (RW)
• The heat generated in resistance welding
H=I Rt 2
(1)

Hw HL
Heat lost into the
Heat used to
work metal,
form weld
electrodes, and
Nugget
surrounding air
say 60%
say 40%
112
 Resistance Welding (RW)
• Therefore the heat generated in resistance welding which is
used to form the weld nugget can be expressed as
H = k I 2R t (2)
– H = the total heat generated in the work, J
– I = electric current, A
– t = time for which the electric current is passing through the joint
– R = the resistance of the joint, ohms
– k= a constant to account for the heat losses from the welded
joint. (if k=0.6, that means 40% of the heat is lost into the work
metal, electrodes, and surrounding air. )
113
 4 Major Points of Resistance
• There are 4 major points of resistance in the
work area. They are as follows:
(R1) Resistance of the electrodes.
(R2) The contact resistance between the
electrode and the workpiece.
(R3) The contact resistance between the two
workpiece plates.
(R4) The workpiece resistance.

114
 FORCE

R2 R1

R3
R4
WELD
SPOT OR
NUGGET

FORCE

WELDING
TEMPERATURE 115
 Current Voltage
• AC low volt (typically 1 to 30 V ) electric current
(1000–100,000 A) is supplied through copper
electrodes connected to the secondary coil of a
welding transformer.

116
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 APPLICATIONS
• Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining
– vehicle body parts,
– fuel tanks, SHEET
– domestic radiators, METAL
– pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, PRODUCTS
– wire ends,
– turbine blades etc.

117
 Metals Welded
• The following metals may be welded by
Resistance Welding:
– Low carbon steels - the widest application of
Resistance Welding
– Aluminum alloys
– Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and
Alloy steels

118
 ADVANTAGES
• High welding rates
• Low fumes
• Cost effectiveness
• Easy automation
• No filler materials are required
• Low distortions
• Good repeatability and reliability

119
Types of Resistance Welding (RW)
The most popular methods of Resistance
Welding are:

1. Spot Welding (RSW)

2. Seam Welding (RSEW)

3. Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

120
 1.Spot Welding (RSW)
• Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which
two or more overlapped metal sheets are joined by spot
welds.

• The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing passage

of electric current. The electrodes also transmit pressure
required for formation of strong weld.

• Diameter of the weld spot is in the range - (3 - 12 mm).

• Spot welding is widely used in automotive industry for joining

vehicle body parts.
121
1.Spot Welding (RSW)

122
 1.Spot Welding (RSW) - STEPS
• The sequence is as follows:
1. parts inserted between open electrodes,

2. electrodes close and force is applied,

3. weld time— current is switched on,

4. current is turned off but force is maintained or in-creased (a

reduced current is sometimes applied near the end of this step
for stress relief in the weld region), and

5. electrodes are opened, and the welded assembly is removed. 123

 1.Spot Welding (RSW) - STEPS

(1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close,

force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes
opened.
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 1.Force, Current vs Time
Welding Current

Postweld Heating
Current

(1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close, force applied,
(3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
125
 1.Spot Welding (RSW) - POSTWELD
• It has been observed that steels containing more
than 0.15% carbon may result into brittle weld
joint during resistance welding.

• Therefore post-weld heating is sometimes

applied to eliminate possible brittleness.

126
 2.Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
• When increased strength is required, multiple welds are often
needed, and this means multiple operations.

• Dimples are embossed into one of the workpieces at the location

where a weld is desired.

• The two workpieces are then placed between large-area

electrodes in a press machine, and pressure and current are
applied as in spot welding.

• Since the current must flow through the points of contact (i.e., the
dimples), the heating is concentrated where the weld is desired.
127
• Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) start of operation, contact between parts is
at projections; (2) when current is applied, weld nuggets similar to spot welding are
formed at the projections. 128
 3.Seam Welding (RSEW)
• Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process
of continuous joining of overlapping sheets by
passing them between two rotating electrode
wheels.
• Heat generated by the electric current flowing
through the contact area and pressure provided by
the wheels are sufficient to produce a leak-tight
weld.
• Resistance seam welds (RSEW) can be made by two
distinctly different processes.
129
 3.Seam Welding (RSEW)

130
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3.Seam Welding (RSEW)

131
 3.Seam Welding (RSEW)
• Seam Welding is high speed and clean
process, which is used when continuous tight
weld is required .
• Can produce air‑tight joints
• Applications:
– Gasoline tanks
– Automobile mufflers
– Various other sheet metal containers

132
 Resistance Welding Numerical (RW)

• The heat generated in resistance welding

H=I Rt 2
(1)

Hw HL
Heat lost into the
Heat used to
work metal,
form weld
electrodes, and
Nugget
surrounding air
say 60%
say 40%
133
 Resistance Welding (RW)
• Therefore the heat generated in resistance welding which is
used to form the weld nugget can be expressed as
H = k I 2R t (2)
– H = the total heat generated in the work, J
– I = electric current, A
– t = time for which the electric current is passing through the joint
– R = the resistance of the joint, ohms
– k= a constant to account for the heat losses from the welded
joint. (if k=0.6, that means 40% of the heat is lost into the work
metal, electrodes, and surrounding air. )
134
 NUMERICAL- Q
• A resistance spot-welding operation is performed on
two pieces of 3.5-mm-thick sheet steel using 12,000A
for a 0.20 s duration. The electrodes are 7 mm in
diameter at the contacting surfaces. Resistance is
assumed to be 0.0001 Ω , and the resulting weld
nugget is a sphere of 6 mm in diameter. The unit
melting energy for the metal U=12.0 J/ mm3.
What portion of the heat generated was used to form
the weld nugget, and what portion was dissipated
into the work metal, electrodes, and surrounding air?
135
 NUMERICAL- Ans
Electrode

Weld Nugget
Work piece

Work piece

Electrode

Volume = 4 π R3/3
Sphere nugget 136
 NUMERICAL- Ans

• The heat generated in the operation (H)

H = I 2R t
H = (12000)2× 0.0001× 0.20
H = 2880 J

137
 NUMERICAL- Ans

• Volume of weld nugget = vol of sphere with a

diameter of 6 mm

= 4 π R3
3
= 4/3 × 3.14 × (3)3
= 113.04 mm3
138
 NUMERICAL- Ans

• Heat required to weld the nugget (HW ) = vol X U

= 113.04 × 12
= 1356.48 J

139
 NUMERICAL- Ans

• Heat Lost (HL ) = (H ) - (HW )

= 2880 - 1356.48
= 1523.52 J

140
 NUMERICAL-
Electrode

Weld Nugget
Work piece

Work piece

Electrode

Cylindrical Nugget Volume = πR2h

141
 Gas Flame Processes:
Welding, Cutting and Straightening
• Oxy-fuel gas Welding (OFW): Heat source is the flame
produced by the combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen.
 
• OFW has largely been replaced by other processes but it
is still popular because of its portability and the low
capital investment.
 
• Acetylene is the principal fuel gas employed.
• Combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) in a welding
torch produces a temp. in a two stage reaction.
• In the first stage
C 2 H 2  O2  2CO  H 2 + Heat

This reaction occurs near the tip of the torch.

• In the second stage combustion of the CO and H2 and
occurs just beyond the first combustion zone.
1
2CO + O2  2CO2 + Heat
2 H2 + O2  H2O + Heat
Oxygen for secondary reactions is obtained from the
atmosphere.
 Three types of flames can be obtained by varying the
oxygen/acetylene (or oxygen/fuel gas) ratio.
• If the ratio is about 1 : 1 to 1.15 : 1, all reactions are
carried to completion and a neutral flame is produced.
• Most welding is done with a neutral flame. It is
chemically neutral and neither oxidizes or carburizes the
metal being welded.

Oxy-acetylene gas welding neutral flame

• A higher ratio, such as 1.5 : 1, produces an oxidizing
flame, hotter than the neutral flame (about 3300oC) but
similar in appearance.
• Used when welding copper and copper alloys but harmful
when welding steel because the excess oxygen reacts
with the carbon, decarburizing the region around the
weld.

Oxy-acetylene gas welding Oxidising flame

• Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing
flame. Carburizing flame can carburize metal also.
• The excess fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen, and
the flame temperature is not as great (about 3000oC).
• Flames of this type are used in welding Monel (a nickel-
copper alloy), high-carbon steels, and some alloy steels,
and for applying some types of hard-facing material.

Oxy-acetylene gas welding Carburizing flame

Metal Flame
MS N
High carbon steel R
Grey cast iron N, slightly oxidizing

Alloy steel N
Aluminium Slightly carburizing
Brass Slightly oxidizing
Copper, Bronze N, slightly oxidizing
Nickel alloys Slightly carburizing
Lead N
Diagram
 Uses, Advantages, and Limitations
• OFW is fusion welding.
• No pressure is involved.
• Filler metal can be added in the form of a wire or rod.
• Fluxes may be used to clean the surfaces and remove
contaminating oxide. The gaseous shield produced by
vaporizing flux can prevent oxidation during welding, and
the slag produced by solidifying flux can protect the weld
pool. Flux can be added as a powder, the welding rod can
be dipped in a flux paste, or the rods can be pre-coated.

Contd…
• Exposer of the heated and molten metal to the various
gases in the flame and atmosphere makes it difficult to
prevent contamination.
• Heat source is not concentrated, a large area of the metal
is heated and distortion is likely to occur.
• Flame welding is still quite common in field work, in
maintenance and repairs, and in fabricating small
quantities of specialized products.
 Oxy acetylene welding equipment
• Oxygen is stored in a cylinder at a pressure ranging from
13.8 MPa to 18.2 MPa .
• Due to high explosiveness of free acetylene it is stored in
a cylinder with 80-85% porous calcium silicate and then
filled with acetone which absorb upto 420 times by its
volume at a pressure 1.75 MPa .
• At the time of acetylene release if acetone comes with
acetylene the flame would give a purple colour.
• Another option is acetylene generator.

CaC2  2 H 2O  C2 H 2  Ca (OH ) 2
 Pressure Gas Welding
• Pressure gas welding (PGW) or Oxyacetylene
Pressure Welding is a process used to make butt
joints between the ends of objects such as pipe and-
railroad rail.
• The ends are heated with a gas flame to a
temperature below the melting point, and the soft
metal is then forced together under considerable
pressure.
• This process, therefore, is actually a 'form of solid-
state welding.
 Oxygen Torch Cutting (Gas Cutting)
• Iron and steel oxidize (burn) when heated to a
temperature between 8000C to 10000C.
• High-pressure oxygen jet (300 KPa) is directed against a
heated steel plate, the oxygen jet burns the metal and
blows it away causing the cut (kerf).
• For cutting metallic plates shears are used. These are
useful for straight-line cuts and also for cuts up to 40 mm
thickness.

Contd…
• For thicker plates with specified contour, shearing cannot
be used and oxy-fuel gas cutting (OFC) is useful.
• Gas-cutting is similar to gas welding except torch tip.

Fig- differences in torch tips for gas welding and gas cutting

Contd…
• Larger size orifice produces kerf width wider and
larger oxygen consumed.
• At kindling temperature (about 870oC), iron form
iron oxide.
• Reaction:
3Fe + 2O2  Fe3O4 +6.67 MJ/kg of iron
The other reactions:
2Fe + O2  2FeO + 3.18 MJ/kg of iron
4Fe + 3O2  2Fe2O3 + 4.9 MJ/kg of iron
• All exothermic reactions preheat the steel. Contd…
• For complete oxidation 0.287 m3 oxygen/kg of iron is
required
• Due to unoxidized metal blown away the actual
requirement is much less.
• Torch tip held vertically or slightly inclined in the direction
of travel.
• Torch position is about 1.5 to 3 mm vertical from plate.

Contd…
• The drag lines shows the characteristics of the
movement of the oxygen stream.

Fig- positioning of cutting torch in oxy- fuel gas cutting

• Drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the

drag line trails from the top edge.
• Good cut means negligible drag.
Contd…
• If torch moved too rapidly, the bottom does not get
sufficient heat and produces large drag so very rough and
irregular-shaped-cut edges.
• If torch moved slowly a large amount of slag is generated
and produces irregular cut.

Contd…
• Gas cutting is more useful with thick plates.

• For thin sheets (less than 3 mm thick) tip size should be

small. If small tips are not available then the tip is inclined
at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees.

Fig. Recommended torch position for cutting thin steel

 Application
• Useful only for materials which readily get oxidized and
the oxides have lower melting points than the metals.
• Widely used for ferrous materials.
• Cannot be used for aluminum, bronze, stainless steel and
like metals since they resist oxidation.
 Difficulties
• Metal temperature goes beyond lower critical
temperature and structural transformations occur.

• Final microstructure depends on cooling rate.

• Steels with less than 0.3 % carbon cause no problem.

Contd…
• For high carbon steel material around the cut should be
preheated (about 250 to 300oC) and may post heat also
necessary.
• Cutting CI is difficult, since its melting temp. is lower than
iron oxide.
• If chromium and nickel etc are present in ferrous alloys
oxidation and cutting is difficult.
 Soldering & Brazing
• In brazing and soldering, the surfaces to be
joined are first cleaned, the components
assembled or fixtured, and a low-melting-point
nonferrous metal [Aluminum-silicon, Copper,
Copper-silver, Copper-zinc (brass), Copper-tin
(bronze), Gold-silver] is then melted, drawn into
the space between the two solids by capillary
action, and allowed to solidify.

164
 Brazing

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165
 Brazing
• Brazing is the permanent joining of similar or
dissimilar metals or ceramics (or composites
based on those two materials) through the use of
heat and a filler metal whose melting
temperature (actually, liquidus temperature) is
above 450°C but below the melting point (or
solidus temperature) of the materials being
joined.

166
 Brazing Advantages
1. A wide range of metallic and non-metallic
materials can be brazed. The process is ideally
suited for joining dissimilar materials, such as
ferrous metal to nonferrous metal, cast metal
to wrought metal, metals with widely different
melting points, or even metal to ceramic.
2. Since less heating is required than for welding,
the process can be performed quickly and
economically.
167
 Brazing Advantages
3. The lower temperatures reduce problems
associated with heat-affected zones (or other
material property alteration), warping, and
distortion.
4. Assembly tolerances are closer than for most
welding processes, and joint appearance is
usually quite neat.

168
 Brazing Advantages
5. Brazing is highly adaptable to automation and
performs well when mass-producing complex or
delicate assemblies. Complex products can also
be brazed in several steps using filler metals
with progressively lower melting temperatures.
6. A strong permanent joint is formed.

169
 Brazing Disadvantages
• Joint strength is generally less than that of a
welded joint;
• Although strength of a good brazed joint is
greater than that of the filler metal, it is likely to
be less than that of the base metals;
• High service temperatures may weaken a brazed
joint; and
• The colour of the metal in the brazed joint may
not match the colour of the base metal parts, a
possible aesthetic disadvantage. 170
 Brazing Applications
• Brazing as a production process is widely used in a variety
of industries, including
– automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes),
– electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables),
– cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts to shanks),
and
– Jewellry making.
• In addition, the chemical processing industry and
plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and
tubes by brazing.
• The process is used extensively for repair and maintenance
work in nearly all industries 171
Brazing FILLER METALS

172
Brazing FILLER METALS

173
 SOLDERING

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174
 SOLDERING
• Soldering is a brazing-type operation where the
filler metal has a melting temperature (or liquidus
temperature if the alloy has a freezing range)
below 450°C.
• It is typically used for joining thin metals,
connecting electronic components, joining metals
while avoiding exposure to high elevated
temperatures, and filling surface flaws and defects.
• Details of soldering are similar to those of brazing,
and many of the heating methods are the same.
175
 SOLDERING
• Surfaces to be soldered must be pre-cleaned so
they are free of oxides, oils, and so on.
• An appropriate flux must be applied to the faying
surfaces, and the surfaces are heated.
• Filler metal, called solder, is added to the joint,
which distributes itself between the closely
fitting parts.

176
 SOLDERING
• As an industrial process, soldering is most closely
associated with electronics assembly.
• It is also used for mechanical joints, but not for
joints subjected to elevated stresses or
temperatures.

177
 ADVANTAGES
• Advantages attributed to soldering include
– (1) low energy input relative to brazing and fusion
welding,
– (2) variety of heating methods available,
– (3) good electrical and thermal conductivity in the
joint,
– (4) capability to make air-tight and liquid-tight seams
for containers, and
– (5) easy to repair and rework.

178
 DISADVANTAGES
• The biggest disadvantages of soldering are
– (1) low joint strength unless reinforced by
mechanically means and
– (2) possible weakening or melting of the joint in
elevated temperature service.

179
 ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS
• Principal function of the soldered joint is to provide an
electrically conductive path between two parts being
joined.
• Other design considerations include heat generation
(from the electrical resistance of the joint) and vibration.
• Mechanical strength in a soldered electrical connection is
often achieved by deforming one or both of the metal
parts to accomplish a mechanical joint between them,
• or By making the surface area larger to provide maximum
support by the solder.
180
COMMONLY USED SOLDERING ALLOY

181
 References:
• M. P. Groover, Fundamentals Of Modern Manufacturing:
Materials, Processes, and Systems, Wiley (2016), 5th edition.
• Degarmo, E. P., Kohser, Ronald A. and Black, J. T., Materials and
Processes in Manufacturing, Prentice Hall of India (2008) 8th ed.

• Kalpakjian, S. and Schmid, S. R., Manufacturing Processes for

Engineering Materials, Dorling Kingsley (2006) 4th ed.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOAdEIQKZDs
• https://gfycat.com/tattereddownrightbutterfly
• http://www.davidpageassociates.co.uk/spotweld.htm
• https://gfycat.com/gifs/search/resistance+welding

182
183