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Computer Networking

The document provides an introduction to computer networks. It discusses key topics such as the components of a computer network including physical media, networking devices, computers that act as clients and servers, and networking protocols like TCP/IP. It also describes different types of network topologies including bus, star, ring, mesh and tree topologies and explains the applications of computer networks.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

101 views646 pages

Computer Networking

Uploaded by

John P. Gibson

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 646

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Prepared by:
Dr. Y Mohana Roopa
Mr. P Ravinder
Ms. N M Deepika
Ms. B Jaya Vijaya
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UNIT-1

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Introduction to Computer Networks

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
NETWORKS

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks
Computer
network connects two
or more autonomous
computers.

The can be
computers located
geographically
anywhere.
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Introduction to Computer Networks

LAN, MAN & WAN

Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building
or a Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network)

Network in a City is call MAN (Metropolitan Area

Network)

Network spread geographically (Country or across

Globe) is called WAN (Wide Area Network)

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files,
databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast
Remote computing 6
Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
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Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Topology
The network
topology defines
the
which way in
computers,
printers, and other
devices are connected.
A network topology
describes the layout of
the wire and devices as
well as the paths used
by data transmissions.

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Bus Topology
Commonly referred to
as a linear bus, all the
devices on a bus
topology are connected
by one single cable.

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds the
data as well as the destination
address to the frame.
The frame then continues around
the ring until it finds the
destination node, which takes the
data out of the frame.
Single ring – All the devices on
the network share a single cable
Dual ring – The dual ring topology
allows data to be sent in both 10
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Introduction to Computer Networks

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other
for redundancy and
fault tolerance.
It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and
for mission critical
networks like those
used by banks and
financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive
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Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Components
Physical Media
Interconnecting Devices
Computers
Networking Software
Applications

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Media
Networking media can
be defined simply as
the means by which
signals (data) are sent
from one computer to
another (either by cable
or wireless means).

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Devices
HUB, Switches, Routers,
Wireless Access Points,
Modems etc.

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Computers: Clients and Servers

In a client/server
network
arrangement,
network services are
located in a dedicated
computer whose only
function is to respond
to the requests of
clients.

The server contains the

file, print, application,
security, and other
services in a central
computer that is
continuously available
to respond to 15
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client requests.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Protocol: TCP/IP

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications
E-mail
Searchable Data (Web Sites)
E-Commerce
News Groups
Internet Telephony (VoIP)
Video Conferencing
Chat Groups
Instant Messengers
Internet Radio

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Networking
Computer network
A collection of computing devices connected in
order to communicate and share resources
Connections between computing devices can be
physical using wires or cables or wireless using
radio waves or infrared signals

Can you name some of the devices in a computer

network?

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Networking
Node (host)
Any device on a network
Data transfer rate (bandwidth)
The speed with which data is moved from
one place to another on a network

Why is bandwidth so key?

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Networking
Computer networks have opened up an
entire frontier in the world of computing
called the client/server model

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Networking
Protocol
A set of rules that defines how data is formatted and
processed on a network
File server
A computer dedicated to storing and managing files for
network users
Web server
A computer dedicated to responding to requests for web
pages
P2P model
A decentralized approach that shares resources and
responsibilities among many “peer” computers

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Types of Networks
Local-area network (LAN)
A network that connects a relatively small number
of machines in a relatively close geographical area
Ring topology connects all nodes in a closed
loop on which messages travel in one direction
Star topology centers around one node to
which all others are connected and through which all
messages are sent
Bus topology nodes are connected to a single
communication line that carries messages in both
directions
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Types of Networks

Ethernet
The industry standard bus technology for
local-area networks

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Types of Networks
Wide-area network (WAN)
A network that connects local-area networks over
a potentially large geographic distance
Metropolitan-area network (MAN)
The communication infrastructures that have been
developed in and around large cities
Gateway
One particular set up to handle all communication
going between that LAN and other networks

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Types of Networks

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Types of Networks
Internet
A wide area network that spans the planet

So, who owns the Internet?

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Internet Connections
Wireless network
A network in which devices communicate with
other nodes through a wireless access point
Bluetooth
A technology used for wireless communication
over short distances

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Internet Connections
Internet backbone
A set of high-speed networks that carry Internet
traffic, provided by companies such as AT&T,
Verizon, GTE, British Telecom, and IBM
Internet service provider (ISP)
An organization providing access to the
Internet

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Internet Connections
Various technologies available to connect a home
computer to the Internet
Phone modem converts computer data into an analog
audio signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then
a modem at the destination converts it back again into
data
Digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper
phone lines to transfer digital data to and from the
phone company’s central office
Cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV
signals come in on to transfer the data back and forth
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Internet Connections
Broadband
A connection in which transfer speeds are faster
than 768 kilobits per second
– DSL connections and cable modems are broadband
connections
– The speed for downloads (getting data from the
Internet to your home computer) may not be the same
as uploads (sending data from your home computer
to the Internet)

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Packet Switching
Packet
A unit of data sent across a network
Router
A network device that directs a packet between networks
toward its final destination
Packet switching
Messages are divided into fixed-sized, numbered packets;
packets are individually routed to their destination, then
reassembled

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Packet Switching

Take a message, break it into three packets, and

simulate this process

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Open Systems
A logical progression...

Proprietary system
A system that uses technologies kept private by a
particular commercial vendor
Interoperability
The ability of software and hardware on multiple
machines and from multiple commercial vendors to
communicate
Open systems
Systems based on a common model of network
architecture and a suite of protocols used in its
implementation
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Open Systems
Open Systems
Interconnection Reference
Model
A seven-layer logical break
down of network interaction to
facilitate communication
standards
Each layer deals with a
particular aspect of network
communication

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Network Protocols
• Network protocols are layered such that
each one relies on the protocols that
underlie it
• Sometimes referred to as a protocol
stack

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TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Software that breaks messages into packets,
hands them off to the IP software for delivery, and
then orders and reassembles the packets at their
destination
Internet Protocol (IP)
Software that deals with the routing of packets
through the maze of interconnected networks to
their final destination

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TCP/IP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
An alternative to TCP that is faster but less reliable
Ping
A program used to test whether a particular
network computer is active and reachable
Traceroute
A program that shows the route a packet takes
across the Internet

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Traceroute in Action

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High-Level Protocols
Other protocols build on TCP/IP protocol suite
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) used to specify
transfer of electronic mail
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows a user to transfer
files to and from another computer
Telnet used to log onto one computer from another
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (http) allows exchange
of Web documents

Which of these have you used?

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High-Level Protocols
Port
A numeric
designation
that
corresponds to
a particular
high-level
protocol

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MIME Types
MIME type
A standard for defining the format of files
that are included as email attachments or on
websites

What does MIME stand for?

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

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Firewalls
Firewall
A gateway machine and its software that protects
a network by filtering the traffic it allows
Access control policy
A set of rules established by an organization that
specifies what types of network communication
are permitted and denied

Have your messages ever been

returned undelivered, blocked by a firewall?
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Firewalls

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Network Addresses
Hostname
A name made up of words separated by dots that
uniquely identifies a computer on the Internet
IP address
An address made up of four one-byte numeric
values separated by dots that uniquely identifies a
computer on the Internet

Is there a correspondence between the parts of a hostname

and an IP address?
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Network Addresses

What is wrong with the IP4 strategy?

How did smartphones contribute to the problem?

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Network Addresses

IPv4
The last block was assigned in 2011
IPv6
32 bits organized into 4 groups of 8
FE80:0000:0000:0000:0202:B3FF:FE1E:8329

They work in parallel

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Domain Name System
Host number
The part of the IP address that specifies a
particular host (machine) on the network Yes, but
what is it?
Domain name
The part of a hostname that specifies a specific
organization or group
Top-level domain (TLD)
The last section of a domain name that specifies
the type of organization or its country of origin

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Domain Name System
Domain name system (DNS)
A distributed system for managing hostname
resolution
Domain name server
A computer that attempts to translate a hostname
into an IP address
Domain Squatting
Ransoming domain names
Should the tables containing hostname/IP mappings be
sorted or unsorted? Why?

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Domain Name System

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Domain Name System
Organizations based in countries other than the United
States use a top-level domain that corresponds to
their two-letter country codes

Have you
emailed
someone
in another
country?

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Domain Name System

A very small, random selection of new TLDs that are

available as of mid-2014

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Who Controls the Internet?
Control of IP addresses and domain names
• Internet began as ARPANET, a project of the US
Dept. of Defense
• Control subcontracted to ICANN in 1998
•US gov’t to further reduce role as early as 2015
FCC proposal
• Would allow ISPs to provide “premium” access to
certain customers, perhaps by deliberately slowing
down data transfer for others
• Net neutrality - The principle that ISPs should deliver
data to everyone equally, as fast as the technology
allows

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Cloud Computing
• Public clouds are accessible by any subscriber
• Private clouds are established for a specific group or
organization
• Community clouds are shared among two or more
organizations with the same needs
• Hybrid clouds are some combination of the others

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Ethical Issues
Effects of Social Networking
What are some examples of popular social
networking sites?
Who uses social networking?
What are the benefits and the disadvantages of
using these social networking sites?
Do the benefits of social networking out weigh
the potential costs?

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Brief History of Internet

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Internet Impact
• Check weather
• Buy goods
• Play music
• Find the shortest route
• Give a lecture…

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The Incredible Growth
80000000
70000000
60000000
50000000
40000000
30000000
20000000
10000000
0
Approximate Number of Computers on the Internet

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Brief Internet History
• Batch Environment - 1950s
– No direct interaction between users and their
programs during execution
• Time Sharing - 1960s

– Users were able to interact with the computer and

could share its information processing resources
– Marked the beginning of computer
communications

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Brief Internet History (cont.)

Time Sharing:
Dumb terminals connected to
a central computer system

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Brief Internet History (cont.)
• Late 1960s: ARPANET
– ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency)
commissioned an experimental computer network

• 1970s:
– Distributed Processing: minicomputers;
• Communication between neighbor processors
and applications via networks
– Growth of ARPANET and Invention of Email

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Brief Internet History (cont.)
• 1980s:
– WAN and LAN
– Prototype Internet
– TCP/IP:Allows different networks to
interconnect

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A LAN Example

E
D

A
C

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Internet: a network of networks

The Internet

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Brief Internet History (cont.)
• 1990s: WWW
– HTTP and HTML
– Marc Andreessen: Mosaic (all-in-one solution)
– Commercial traffic allowed ECommerce

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Networking Questions
• Over what medium?
• At what speed?
• How to address computers?
• Which path?
• How to handle (detect & recover) errors?
• What services?
• How to address documents?
• What data format?

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Outline
• Introduction
• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Model
• IPv4 vs. IPv6

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What is a Protocol?
• A standard that allows entities (i.e.
application programs) from
different systems to communicate
• Shared conventions for communicating
information
• Includes syntax, semantics, and timing

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Standardized Protocol
Architectures
• Vendors like standards because they make their
products more marketable
• Customers like standards because they enable
products from different vendors to interoperate
• Two protocol standards are well-known:
– TCP/IP: widely implemented
– OSI: less used, still useful for
modeling/conceptualizing

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Internet Standards
• Email related standards
– IMAP, POP, X.400, SMTP, CMC, MIME, binhex, uuencode
• Web related standards
– http, CGI, html/xml/vrml/sgml
• Internet directory standards
– X.500, LDAP
• Application standards
– http, FTP, telnet, gopher,
wais
• Videoconferencing standards
– H.320, H.323, Mpeg-1, Mpeg-2

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*Telecommunication
Standards
Organizations
• International Telecommunications Union - Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-TSS). Formerly called the Consultative
Committee on International Telegraph and Telephone (CCITT)
• International Organization for Standards (ISO). Member of the ITU,
makes technical recommendations about data communications
interfaces.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
• National Exchange Carriers Association (NECA)
• Corporation for Open Systems (COS)
• Electronic Data Interchange -(EDI) of Electronic Data Interchange
for Administration Commerce and Transport (EDIFACT).
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*Internet Engineering Task
Force
A protocol proposed by a vendor

IETF working group study the proposal

IETF issues a request for comment (RFC)

IETF reviews the comments

IETF proposes an improved RFC

The RFC becomes a proposed standard

The proposed standard becomes a draft
standard if two or more vendors adopt
it
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What is OSI?
• Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984
• The primary architectural model for intercomputer
communications.
• A conceptual model composed of seven layers, each
specifying particular network functions.
• Describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a network medium to a
software application in another computer.

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Why Study OSI?
• Still an excellent model for conceptualizing
and understanding protocol architectures
• Key points:
– Modular
– Hierarchical
– Boundaries between layers=interfaces

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Headers and Data

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OSI Lower Layers
• Physical – Layer 1
• Data Link – Layer 2
• Network – Layer 3

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OSI Physical Layer
• Responsible for transmission of bits
• Always implemented through hardware
• Encompasses mechanical, electrical, and
functional interfaces
• e.g. RS-232

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*Physical-layer Implementation

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OSI Data Link Layer
• Responsible for error-free, reliable
transmission of data
• Flow control, error correction
• e.g. HDLC

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OSI Data Link Layer

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Network Access Layer
• Concerned with exchange of data between
computer and network
• Includes addressing, routing, prioritizing,
etc
• Different networks require different software at
this layer
• Example: X.25 standard for network access
procedures on packet-switching networks

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OSI Upper Layers
• Transport
• Session
• Presentation
• Application

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OSI Transport Layer
• Isolates messages from lower and upper
layers
• Breaks down message size
• Monitors quality of communications
channel
• Selects most efficient communication
service necessary for a given transmission

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Transport Layer
• Concerned with reliable transfer of
information between applications
• Independent of the nature of the
application
• Includes aspects like flow control and error
checking

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OSI Session Layer
• Establishes logical connections between
systems
• Manages log-ons, password exchange,
log-offs
• Terminates connection at end of
session

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OSI Presentation Layer
• Provides format and code conversion
services
• Examples
– File conversion from ASCII to EBDIC
– Invoking character sequences to generate
bold, italics, etc on a printer

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OSI Application Layer
• Provides access to network for end-user
• User’s capabilities are determined by what
items are available on this layer
• Logic needed to support various
applications
• Each type of application (file transfer,
remote access) requires different software
on this layer
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Application Viewpoint of a
Network
• Distributed data communications involves
three primary components:
– Networks
– Computers
– Applications
• Three corresponding layers
– Network access layer
– Transport layer
– Application layer
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TCP/IP
• Transmission control Protocol/Internet Protocol
• Developed by DARPA
• No official protocol standard
• Can identify five layers
– Application
– Host-to-Host (transport)
– Internet
– Network Access
– Physical

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An OSI View of TCP/IP
Internet Model OSI Model F-D’s Model

Application
(http, telnet, snmp, Application
smtp, nfs, layer
ftp)
Transport
(TCP, Network
UDP) layer
Internet (IPv4/IPv6)
(HDLC) Data Link layer
Network Access
Physical layer
Physical layer
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Sender Receiver
Application Application
Layer HTTP Request Layer HTTP Request

Transpor Request
Transpor Request
TCP HTTP TCP HTTP
t Layer t Layer

Network Request
Network Request
IP TCP HTTP IP TCP HTTP
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Ethernet IP TCP HTTP Request Layer Ethernet IP TCP HTTP Request

Physical Physical
Layer Layer

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TCP/IP Network Access Layer
• Exchange of data between end system and
network
• Address of host and destination
• Prioritization of transmission
• Software at this layer depends on network
(e.g.
X.25 vs. Ethernet)
• Segregation means that no other software
needs to be concerned about net
specifics
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TCP/IP Internet Layer
• An Internet is an interconnection of two or more
networks
• Internet layer handles tasks similar to network
access layer, but between networks rather than
between nodes on a network
• Uses IP for addressing and routing across
networks
• Implemented in workstations and routers

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TCP/IP Transport Layer
• Also called host-to-host layer
• Reliable exchange of data between
applications
• Uses TCP protocols for
transmission

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TCP/IP Application Layer
• Logic needed to support variety of applications
• Separate module supports each type of
application (e.g. file transfer)
– FTP
– HTTP
– Telnet
– News
– SMTP

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*TCP/IP
Application TELNET FTP SMTP DNS SNMP
Presentation DHCP
Session
RIP

Transport RTP Transmission User Datagram

OSPF
RTCP Control Protocol Protocol

IGMP ICMP

Network Internet Protocol

ARP

Data link
Ethernet Token Bus Token Ring FDDI
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TCP & UDP
• Most TCP/IP applications use TCP for transport
layer
• TCP provides a connection (logical association)
between two entities to regulate flow check
errors
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) does not
maintain a connection, and therefore does not
guarantee delivery, preserve sequences, or
protect against duplication

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Internetworking
• Interconnected networks, usually implies
TCP/IP
• Can appear to users as a single large
network
• The global Internet is the largest example,
but intranets and extranets are also
examples

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Internetworking

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TCP Segment (TCP PDU)
• Source port (16 bits)
• Destination port (16 bits)
• Sequence number (32 bits)
• Acknowledgment number (32 bits)
• Data Offset (4 bits)
• Reserved (6 bits)
• Flags (6 bits) : URG, ACK, PSH, RST, SYN, FIN
• Window (16 bits)
• Checksum (16 bits)
• Urgent Pointer (16 bits)
• Options (variable)
The size of TCP header is 192 bits = 24 byes.
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IPv4 and IPv6
• IP (IPv4) provides for 32-bit source and
destination addresses, using a 192-bit
header
• IPv6 (1996 standard) provides for 128-bit
addresses, using a 320-bit header.
• Migration to IPv6 will be a very slow
process

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*History of IPng Effort
• By the Winter of 1992 the Internet community had developed four separate
proposals for IPng. These were "CNAT", "IP Encaps", "Nimrod", and
"Simple CLNP". By December 1992 three more proposals followed; "The P
Internet Protocol" (PIP), "The Simple Internet Protocol" (SIP) and "TP/IX". In
the Spring of 1992 the "Simple CLNP" evolved into "TCP and UDP with
Bigger Addresses" (TUBA) and "IP Encaps" evolved into "IP Address
Encapsulation" (IPAE).
• By the fall of 1993, IPAE merged with SIP while still maintaining the name
SIP. This group later merged with PIP and the resulting working group
called themselves "Simple Internet Protocol Plus" (SIPP). At about the
same time the TP/IX Working Group changed its name to "Common
Architecture for the Internet" (CATNIP).
• The IPng area directors made a recommendation for an IPng in July of
1994
[RFC 1752].
• The formal name of IPng is IPv6

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Data and Signals

Sensitivity: Public 3C.o1p0y4right © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not
what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise
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Figure 3.25 Causes of impairment

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Attenuation

• Means loss of energy -> weaker signal

• When a signal travels through a
medium it loses energy overcoming the
resistance of the medium
• Amplifiers are used to compensate for
this loss of energy by amplifying the
signal.

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Measurement of Attenuation

• To show the loss or gain of energy the

unit “decibel” is used.

dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

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Figure 3.26 Attenuation

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Example 3.26

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced
to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of
power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

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Example 3.27

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This
means that P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as

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Example 3.28

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes in the strength
of a signal is that decibel numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two. In Figure 3.27 a signal
travels from point 1 to point 4. In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as

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Figure 3.27 Decibels for Example 3.28

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Example 3.29

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in milliwatts. In this case,
it is referred to as dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the
power in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dBm = −30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

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Example 3.30
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). If the
signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is
the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB. We can calculate the
power as

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Distortion
• Means that the signal changes its form or
shape
• Distortion occurs in composite signals
• Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed traveling through a
medium.
• The different components therefore arrive
with different delays at the receiver.
• That means that the signals have different
phases at the receiver than they did at
the source.
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Figure 3.28
Distortion

117
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Noise
• There are different types of noise
– Thermal - random noise of electrons in the
wire creates an extra signal
– Induced - from motors and appliances,
devices act are transmitter antenna and
medium as receiving antenna.
– Crosstalk - same as above but between
two wires.
– Impulse - Spikes that result from power
lines, lighning, etc.
118
Sensitivity: Public
Figure 3.29 Noise

119
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Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

• To measure the quality of a system the

SNR is often used. It indicates the
strength of the signal wrt the noise
power in the system.
• It is the ratio between two powers.
• It is usually given in dB and referred to
as SNRdB.

120
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Example 3.31

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the
values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

121
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Example 3.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

122
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Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

123
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Transmission Media

124
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Overview
• Guided - wire
• Unguided - wireless
• Characteristics and quality determined by
medium and signal
• For guided, the medium is more
important
• For unguided, the bandwidth produced by
the antenna is more important
• Key concerns are data rate and distance 125
Sensitivity: Public
Design Factors
• Bandwidth
– Higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
• Transmission impairments
– Attenuation
• Interference
• Number of receivers
– In guided media
– More receivers (multi-point) introduce more
attenuation
126
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Electromagnetic Spectrum

127
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Guided Transmission Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial cable
• Optical fiber

128
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Transmission Characteristics of
Guided Media
Frequency Typical Typical Repeater
Range Attenuation Delay Spacing
Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz 0.2 dB/km @ 50 µs/km 2 km
(with loading) 1 kHz

Twisted pairs 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km @ 5 µs/km 2 km

(multi-pair 1 kHz
cables)
Coaxial cable 0 to 500 MHz 7 dB/km @ 10 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km
MHz
Optical fiber 186 to 370 0.2 to 0.5 5 µs/km 40 km
THz dB/km

129
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Twisted Pair

130
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Twisted Pair - Applications
• Most common medium
• Telephone network
– Between house and local exchange
(subscriber loop)
• Within buildings
– To private branch exchange (PBX)
• For local area networks (LAN)
– 10Mbps or 100Mbps

131
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Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons
• Cheap
• Easy to work with
• Low data rate
• Short range

132
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Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
• Analog
– Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
• Digital
– Use either analog or digital signals
– repeater every 2km or 3km
• Limited distance
• Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
• Limited data rate (100MHz)
• Susceptible to interference and noise 133
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Near End Crosstalk
• Coupling of signal from one pair to another
• Coupling takes place when transmit signal
entering the link couples back to
receiving pair
• i.e. near transmitted signal is picked up by
near receiving pair

134
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Unshielded and Shielded TP
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
– Ordinary telephone wire
– Cheapest
– Easiest to install
– Suffers from external EM interference
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
– Metal braid or sheathing that reduces
interference
– More expensive
Sensitivity: Public
– Harder to handle (thick, heavy) 135
UTP Categories
• Cat 3
– up to 16MHz
– Voice grade found in most offices
– Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
• Cat 4
– up to 20 MHz
• Cat 5
– up to 100MHz
– Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
– Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
• Cat 5E (Enhanced) –see tables
• Cat 6
• Cat 7
136
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Comparison of Shielded and
Un s h i e ld e d
Atte nu atio n (dB per 100 m)
Frequency Category 3 Category 5 150-ohm Category 3 Category 5 150-ohm
(MHz) UTP UTP STP UTP UTP STP

Twiste d P a i r N ear-e nd Cro ss talk (dB)

1 2.6 2.0 1.1 41 62 58

4 5.6 4.1 2.2 32 53 58

16 13.1 8.2 4.4 23 44 50.4

25 — 10.4 6.2 — 41 47.5

100 — 22.0 12.3 — 32 38.5

300 — — 21.4 — — 31.3137

Sensitivity: Public
Twisted Pair Categories and
Classes
Category 3 Category 5 Category Category 6 Category 7
Class C Class D 5E Class E Class F

Bandwidth 16 MHz 100 MHz 100 MHz 200 MHz 600 MHz

Cable Type UTP UTP/FTP UTP/FTP UTP/FTP SSTP

Link Cost 0.7 1 1.2 1.5 2.2

(Cat 5 =1)

138

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Coaxial Cable

139
Sensitivity: Public
Coaxial Cable Applications
• Most versatile medium
• Television distribution
– Ariel to TV
– Cable TV
• Long distance telephone transmission
– Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
– Being replaced by fiber optic
• Short distance computer systems links
• Local area networks 140
Sensitivity: Public
Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
• Analog
– Amplifiers every few km
– Closer if higher frequency
– Up to 500MHz
• Digital
– Repeater every 1km
– Closer for higher data rates

141
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Optical Fiber

142
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Optical Fiber - Benefits
• Greater capacity
– Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• Smaller size & weight
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Greater repeater spacing
– 10s of km at least

143
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Optical Fiber - Applications
• Long-haul trunks
• Metropolitan trunks
• Rural exchange trunks
• Subscriber loops
• LANs

144
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Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
• Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
– Portions of infrared and visible spectrum
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
– Cheaper
– Wider operating temp range
– Last longer
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
– More efficient
– Greater data rate 145

•
Sensitivity: Public
Optical Fiber Transmission
Modes

146
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Frequency Utilization for Fiber
Wavelength (in
Applications
Frequency Band Fiber type Application
vacuum) range (THz)
range (nm) label

820 to 900 366 to 333 Multimode LAN

1280 to 1350 234 to 222 S Single mode Various

1528 to 1561 196 to 192 C Single mode WDM

1561 to 1620 185 to 192 L Single mode WDM

147
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Attenuation in Guided Media

148
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Wireless Transmission
Frequencies
• 2GHz to 40GHz
– Microwave
– Highly directional
– Point to point
– Satellite
• 30MHz to 1GHz
– Omnidirectional
– Broadcast radio
• 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
– Infrared 149
Sensitivity: Public – Local
UNIT II

INTRODUCTION TO DATA
LINK LAYER

150
Sensitivity: Public
Link layer
our goals:
• understand principles behind link layer
services:
– error detection, correction
– sharing a broadcast channel: multiple
access
– link layer addressing
– local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
• instantiation, implementation of various
link layer technologies
151
Sensitivity: Public
Link layer, LANs: outline
1. introduction, services 6. LAN switches
2. error detection, 7. a day in the life of a
correction web request
3. multiple access
protocols
4. link-layer
addressing
5. Ethernet, LANs

152
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Link layer: introduction
terminology:
• hosts and routers: nodes
• communication channels that global ISP
connect adjacent nodes along
communication path: links
– wired links
– wireless links
– LANs
• layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one
node to physically adjacent node
over a link 153
Sensitivity: Public
Link layer: context
• datagram transferred by transportation analogy:
different link protocols • trip from Princeton to Lausanne
over different links: – limo: Princeton to JFK
– plane: JFK to Geneva
– e.g., Ethernet on first – train: Geneva to Lausanne
link, frame relay on • tourist = datagram
intermediate links,
• transport segment =
802.11 on last link
communication link
• each link protocol • transportation mode = link
provides different services layer protocol
– e.g., may or may not • travel agent = routing
provide rdt over link algorithm

154
Sensitivity: Public
Link layer services
• framing, link access:
– encapsulate datagram into frame, adding
header, trailer
– channel access if shared medium
– “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to
identify source, dest
• different from IP address!
• reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
– we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
– seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some
twisted pair)
– wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

155
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Link layer services
(more)
• flow control:
– pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
• error detection:
– errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
– receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
• error correction:
– receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to
retransmission
• half-duplex and full-duplex
– with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not
at same time

156
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Where is the link layer
implemented?
• in each and every host
• link layer implemented in
“adaptor” (aka network
interface card NIC)
– Ethernet card, 802.11 application
transport
card network
link
cpu memory

– implements link,
physical layer host
bus
controller
• attaches into host’s link
(e.g., PCI)
physical
system buses physical
transmission
• combination of
hardware, network adapter
card
software, firmware
157
Sensitivity: Public
Adaptors communicating

datagram datagram

controller controller

sending host receiving host

datagram

frame

• sending side: • receiving side

– encapsulates datagram – looks for errors, rdt, flow
control, etc
in frame – extracts datagram,
– adds error checking bits, passes to upper layer at
rdt, flow control, etc. receiving side
158
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Link layer, LANs: outline
1. introduction, services 6. LAN switches
2. error detection, 7. a day in the life of a
correction web request
3. multiple access
protocols
4. link-layer
addressing
5. Ethernet, LANs

159
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Error detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header
fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

160
Sensitivity: Public
Parity checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
 detect single bit  detect and correct single bit errors
errors

161
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Internet checksum (review)
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
packet (note: used at transport layer only)

sender: receiver:
• treat segment contents • compute checksum of
as sequence of 16-bit received segment
integers • check if computed
• checksum: addition checksum equals
(1’s complement sum) checksum field value:
of segment contents – NO - error
• sender puts checksum detected
value into UDP – YES - no error
checksum field detected. But maybe
errors nonetheless?
162
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Cyclic redundancy check
• more powerful error-detection coding
• view data bits, D, as a binary number
• choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
• goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
– <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
– receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If
non-zero remainder: error detected!
– can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
• widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11
WiFi, ATM)

163
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CRC example
want:
D.2r XOR R = nG
equivalently:
D.2r = nG XOR R
equivalently:
if we divide D.2r
by G, want
remainder R to
satisfy:
D.2r
R= ]
remainder[ G

164
Sensitivity: Public
Cyclic Redundancy Check

(CRC)
Properties of Generator Polynomial
 In general, it is possible to prove that the
following types of errors can be detected by a
G(x) with the stated properties
 All single-bit errors, as long as the xk and x0 terms
have nonzero coefficients.
 All double-bit errors, as long as G(x) has a factor
with at least three terms.
 Any odd number of errors, as long as G(x) contains
the factor (x+1).
 Any “burst” error (i.e., sequence of consecutive
error bits) for which the length of the burst is less
than k bits. (Most burst errors of larger than k bits
can also be detected.)

165
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Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC)
 Six generator polynomials that have become
international standards are:
 CRC-8 = x8+x2+x+1
 CRC-10 = x10+x9+x5+x4+x+1
 CRC-12 = x12+x11+x3+x2+x+1
 CRC-16 = x16+x15+x2+1
 CRC-CCITT = x16+x12+x5+1
 CRC-32 =
x32+x26+x23+x22+x16+x12+x11+x10+x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+
x+1

166
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Link layer, LANs: outline
1. introduction, services 6. LAN switches
2. error detection, 7. a day in the life of a
correction web request
3. multiple access
protocols
4. link-layer
addressing
5. Ethernet, LANs

167
Sensitivity: Public
Multiple access links, protocols
two types of “links”:
• point-to-point
– PPP for dial-up access
– point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host

• broadcast (shared wire or medium)

– old-fashioned Ethernet
– upstream HFC
– 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail
Ethernet) party
(shared air, 168
acoustical)
Sensitivity: Public
Multiple access protocols
• single shared broadcast channel
• two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference
– collision if node receives two or more signals at
the same time

multiple access protocol

• distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel,
i.e., determine when node can transmit
• communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
– no out-of-band channel for coordination

169
Sensitivity: Public
An ideal multiple access protocol
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
desiderata:
1.when one node wants to transmit, it can send
at rate R.
2.when M nodes want to transmit, each can
send at average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple
170
Sensitivity: Public
MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
• channel partitioning
– divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency,
code)
– allocate piece to node for exclusive use

• random access
– channel not divided, allow collisions
– “recover” from collisions

• “taking turns”
– nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take
longer turns
171
Sensitivity: Public
Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
• access to channel in "rounds"
• each station gets fixed length slot
(length = pkt trans time) in each round
• unused slots go idle
• example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
slots 2,5,6 idle

6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

172
Sensitivity: Public
Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
• channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
• each station assigned fixed frequency band
• unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
• example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands
2,5,6 idle
frequency bands

FDM cable

173
Sensitivity: Public
Random access protocols
• when node has packet to send
– transmit at full channel data rate R.
– no a priori coordination among nodes
• two or more transmitting nodes ➜
“collision”,
• random access MAC protocol specifies:
– how to detect collisions
– how to recover from collisions (e.g., via
delayed retransmissions)
• examples of random access MAC
protocols:
– slotted ALOHA
– ALOHA
– CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

174
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Slotted ALOHA
assumptions: operation:
• all frames same size • when node obtains fresh
frame, transmits in next slot
• time divided into equal
– if no collision: node can
size slots (time to
send new frame in
transmit 1 frame) next slot
• nodes start to transmit – if collision: node
only slot beginning retransmits frame in
• nodes are each subsequent slot
synchronized with prob. p until
success
• if 2 or more nodes
transmit in slot, all nodes
detect collision 175
Sensitivity: Public
Slotted ALOHA
node 1 1 1 1 1

node 2 2 2 2

node 3 3 3 3

C E C S E C E S S

Pros: Cons:
• single active node can • collisions, wasting slots
continuously transmit at • idle slots
full rate of channel • nodes may be able to
• highly decentralized: detect collision in
only slots in nodes need less than time to
to be in sync transmit packet
• simple • clock synchronization
176
Sensitivity: Public
Slotted ALOHA: efficiency

efficiency: long-run • max efficiency: find p*

fraction of successful that maximizes
slots (many nodes, all Np(1-p)N-1
with many frames to
send) • for many nodes, take
• suppose: N nodes with limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1 as N
many frames to send, goes to infinity, gives:
each transmits in slot with
probability p
max efficiency = 1/e =

!
• prob that given node has .3at7 best:
success in a slot = used for useful
p(1- p)N-1 channel
transmissions
• prob that any node has 37% of time!
a
177
success = Np(1-p)N-1
Sensitivity: Public
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
• unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
• when frame first arrives
– transmit immediately
• collision probability increases:
– frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent
in [t0-1,t0+1]

178
Sensitivity: Public
Pure ALOHA efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0]

= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)

… choosing optimum p and then letting n

= 1/(2e) = .18
even worse than slotted Aloha!

179
Sensitivity: Public
CSMA (carrier sense multiple
access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
if channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame
• if channel sensed busy, defer transmission

• human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

180
Sensitivity: Public
CSMA collisiospnatiasl layout of
nodes
• collisions can still
occur: propagation
delay means
two nodes may not
hear each other’s
transmission
• collision: entire packet
transmission time
wasted
– distance & propagation
delay play role in in
determining collision
probability
181
Sensitivity: Public
CSMA/CD (collision detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
– collisions detected within short time
– colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
• collision detection:
– easy in wired LANs: measure signal
strengths, compare transmitted, received
signals
– difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength
• human analogy: the polite conversationalist
182
Sensitivity: Public
CSMA/CD (collision detection)
spatial layout of nodes

183
Sensitivity: Public
“Taking turns” MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
– share channel efficiently and fairly at high load
– inefficient at low load: delay in channel access,
1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active
node!
random access MAC protocols
– efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize
channel
– high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocols
look for best of both worlds!

184
Sensitivity: Public
“Taking turns” MAC protocols
polling:
• master node “invites”
slave nodes to data
poll
transmit in turn
• typically used with master
data
“dumb” slave devices
• concerns:
– polling
slaves
overhead
– latency
– single point of
185
Sensitivity: Public failure (master)
“Taking turns” MAC protocols
token passing:
T
 control token passed
from one node to
next sequentially.
 token message (nothing
 concerns: to send)
 token overhead T
 latency
 single point of
failure (token)

data
186
Sensitivity: Public
Summary of MAC protocols
• channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
– Time Division, Frequency Division
• random access (dynamic),
– ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
– carrier sensing: easy in some technologies
(wire), hard in others (wireless)
– CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
– CSMA/CA used in 802.11
• taking turns
– polling from central site, token passing
– bluetooth, FDDI, IBM token ring
187
Sensitivity: Public
Link layer, LANs: outline
1. introduction, services 6. LAN switches
2. error detection, 7. a day in the life of a
correction web request
3. multiple access
protocols
4. link-layer
addressing
5. Ethernet, LANs

188
Sensitivity: Public
MAC addresses and ARP
• 32-bit IP address:
 network-layer address
 datagram to destination used to get IP subnet
• MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
 function: get frame from one interface to another
physically-connected interface (same network, in IP-
addressing sense)
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC
ROM, also sometimes software settable
 e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

• hexadecimal (base 16) notation

W(eahchy“nw
t umobear”dredprreessesntes s4 bfiotsr) node ??
189
Sensitivity: Public
LAN addresses and ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN
address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

LAN
(wired or adapter

71-65-F7-2B-08-53 wireless)
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

190
Sensitivity: Public
LAN addresses (more)
• MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
• manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space
(to assure uniqueness)
• analogy:
– MAC address: like Social Security Number
– IP address: like postal address
• MAC flat address ➜ portability
– can move LAN card from one LAN to another
• IP hierarchical address not portable
– address depends on IP subnet to which node is
attached

191
Sensitivity: Public
ARP: address resolution protocol
Question: how to determine
MAC address of B • each IP node (host, router)
knowing B’s IP address? on LAN has ARP table
– IP/MAC address
137.196.7.78
mappings for some
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD LAN nodes:
137.196.7.23 < IP address; MAC address;
137.196.7.14 TTL>
– TTL (Time To Live):
LAN
time after which
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0 address mapping
will be forgotten
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 (typically 20 min)
137.196.7.88

192
Sensitivity: Public
ARP protocol: same LAN
• A wants to send datagram
to B
– B’s MAC address not in • A caches (saves) IP-to-
A’s ARP table.
• A broadcasts ARP query MAC address pair in
packet, containing B's its ARP table until
IP address information becomes
– dest MAC address = FF-
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF old (times out)
– all machines on LAN – soft state: information
receive ARP query
that times out (goes
• B receives ARP packet, away) unless refreshed
replies to A with its
(B's) MAC address • ARP is “plug-and-
– frame sent to A’s MAC play”:
address (unicast)
– nodes create their ARP
tables without
administrator
intervention from net 193
Sensitivity: Public
Addressing: routing to another
LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
– focus on addressing - at both IP (datagram) and MAC layer (frame)
– assume A knows B’s IP address
– assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R (how?)
– assume A knows R’s MAC address (how?)