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WATER QUALITY

ASSESSING WATER
QUALITY

WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS

WATER SUPPLY
AND TREATMENT
Environmental Science BSCE - 1D

WATER
QUALITY
Measures of Water Quality

Group 2 | Presentation
Principal 1 Dissolved Oxygen

Water 2 Oxygen Demand

Indicators 3 Solids

4 Nitrogen

5 Bacteriological Measurements
Dissolved Oxygen
• measured with an oxygen probe

• operates as a galvanic cell

"A galvanic cell uses two polarized electrodes, an anode and a

cathode, in an electrolyte solution."
Dissolved Oxygen
Lead electrode half-reaction:
_ _
Pb + 20H → PbO + H2O + 2e

Silver electrode half-reaction:

_ _
2e + (1/2)O2 + H2O → 2OH
 Oxygen Demand

1 2 3
Theoretical Biochemical Chemical
Oxygen Demand Oxygen Demand Oxygen Demand
 Theoretical Oxygen
1 Demand
• Oxygen demand for decomposition of pure materials
• Hydrocarbon compounds - only carbon and hydrogen, or
an alcohol containing oxygen

- decomposition products: CO2, H2O

• Amine compounds - containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

- decomposition products: CO2, H2O, NH3

ThOD = C-ThOD + N-ThOD

C-ThOD: decomposition of carbonaceous (organic material)

N-ThOD: stabilization of nitrogenous material
 Biochemical
2 Oxygen Demand
• rate of oxygen use by microorganisms, it is not a measure
of some specific pollutant, rather a measure of the amount
of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria and other
microorganisms to stabilize decomposable organic matter.
Biochemical
Oxygen Demand
• contamination is absent;
• microorganisms are uninterested;
• microorganisms are dead/dying.
Standard BOD Test

• run in the dark at 20° for five (5) days

• rate of oxygen consumption is temperature

dependent

• universally run using a standard BOD bottle of

about 300 mL volume
Standard BOD Test

BOD = I - F
where, I = initial DO, mg/L
F = final DO, mg/L
Standard BOD Test

Sample C with distilled water by 1:10

BOD = (8-4)10 = 40 mg/L

Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Expected BOD
_______________
D=
Δ DO
Standard BOD Test

200mL
________ = 3.33mg/L
BOD seed= 5mg/L
300mL
Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Biochemical
Oxygen Demand
• measure of oxygen use

• "pounds of BOD"
lb BOD/day = [mg/L BOD] × [flow in mgd] × [8.34 lb/(mg/L)/(mil gal)]

[Mass flow] = [Volume flow] × [Concentration]

Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Standard BOD Test
Chemical
Oxygen Demand 3
• a laboratory method that essentially determines the ThOD
• determined by measuring the consumption of K Cr O 2 2 7

• greater than the BOD unless the sample contains primarily easily
biodegradable wastes
• provides more consistent results because it is chemically, rather than
biologically based.
Solids
• anything other than water or gas in wastewater

• the residue on evaporation at 103 ◦C, known as

total solids
Solids
Solids
Solids
 Total Solids

Dissolved Solids Suspended Solids

Grooch crucible
Solids
Solids
Solids
Nitrogen
• can be tied up in high-energy compounds and in this form the
nitrogen is known as organic nitrogen

• Kjeldahl nitrogen, combination of two forms of nitrogen

• Aerobic decomposition leads to nitrite (NO2−) and finally

nitrate (NO3−) nitrogen
Colorimetric techniques
• used to analytically measure all forms of nitrogen
• the ion in question combines with some compound and forms a
color

• color is then measured photometrically

• photometer can be used to measure ammonia concentration by

measuring the absorbance of light by samples containing known
ammonia concentration and comparing the absorbance of the
unknown sample to these standards
Colorimetric techniques
Bacteriological
Measurements
• as important as the chemical quality since a number of diseases can be
transmitted by water

• water-related illnesses are the leading cause of human sickness and death
world-wide

• Salmonella, Shigella, the hepatitis virus, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia

lamblia, Escherichia coli, and Cryptosporidium

• indicator most often used is a group of microbes called coliforms, which

includes 150 strains of E. coli
 normal inhabitants of the digestive tracts of
1
warm-blooded animals

plentiful and hence not difficult to find

2

3 easily detected with a simple test

generally harmless except in unusual

4
circumstances

hardy, surviving longer than most known

5
pathogens
 Measuring Coliforms

1 2
Membrane Filtration Most Probable
Number (MPN)
Membrane Filtration
• running a sample through a sterile filter

• filter is then placed in a petri dish containing a sterile agar that soaks into
the filter

• promotes the growth of coliforms while inhibiting other organisms

• after 24 or 48 hours of incubation, the shiny dark blue-green dots, which

indicate coliform colonies, are counted

• concentration of coliforms can be expressed as coliforms per 100

milliliters
Most Probable
Number (MPN)
• test based on the fact that in lactose broth
coliforms produce gas
• production of gas is detected by placing a small
tube upside down inside a larger tube so as not
to have air bubbles in the smaller tube
• After incubation, if gas is produced, some of it
will become trapped in the smaller tube and
this, along with a cloudy broth, indicates that
the tube has been inoculated with at least one
coliform
 Conclusion
Water quality is affected by several water indicators, this
includes dissolved oxygen, oxygen demand, solids,
nitrogen, and bacteriological measurements.
Assessing Water Quality
Water quality is critical to the
health of both ecosystems and
human populations.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• To learn about the process of assessing water
quality and the various parameters that are used
to evaluate it.
• To determine proper design and treatment of
drinking water.
WATER QUALITY
Water Quality refers to the chemical,physical, and
biological characteristic of water.
• It is the measure of condition of water relative to the
requirements to one or more biotic species or for
human need.
• The most common standards used to assess water
relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human
health, and drinking water.
Water Quality Assessment
Water Quality is determined by assessing three classes of
parameter: chemical, biological, and physical.
• BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS: DO, COD, BOD,
HARDNESS, Silanity, pH, and etc.
• PHYSICAL PARAMETERS: TSS, TDS, color,
temperature, and etc.
• CHEMICAL PARAMETERS: includes measuring
many elements and molecules dissolved or
suspended.
Water Quality Parameter
This is primarily considered the most important in the quality of
drinking water.
• EPA drinking water standards categorizes primary drinking water
standards and secondary drinking water standards
• PRIMARY drinking water standard regulate organic and inorganic
chemicals, microbial pathogens, radioactive elements that may
affect the safety of drinking water.
• SECONDARY, on the other hand, regulate chloride, color, copper,
corrosovity, foaming agents, all of which that may affect quality of
drinking water like taste, odor, and appearance.
 OVER 500 METHODS FOR
MEASURING THESE AND OTHER
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
HAVE BEEN STANDARDIZED IN A
VOLUME ENTITLED STANDARD
METHODS FOR THE
EXAMINATION OF WATER AND
WASTEWATER.
• TO DETERMINE WHICH OF THESE TESTS TO
USE WHEN CONFRONTED WITH A
PROBLEM, IT IS NECESSARY FIRST TO
DEFINE THE PROBLEM.
COMMON METHODS IN ASSESSING
WATER QUALITY
FIELD TESTING

LABORATORY
ANALYSIS

REMOTE SENSING
·Field tests are a common method used to assess
water quality. They involve using simple
instruments and kits to measure various water
quality parameter on site. For example, a T
thermometer can be used to measure water F E
temperature, a pH meter can be used to measure S
pH levels, and a dissolve oxygen meter can be I
used to measure oxygen levels in the water. Field E T
tests are convenient and relatively inexpensive, L I
but they may not be as accurate as laboratory N
analysis. D
G
·Laboratory Analysis involves collecting water L
samples and analyzing them in a laboratory A A
using specialized equipment and techniques.
Laboratory analysis can provide more accurate
B N
and precise results than field tests, but it is also O A
more expensive and time-consuming. Common R L
laboratory methods for water quality analysis
include spectrophotometry, chromatography, and
A Y
microbiological analysis. T S
O I
R S
Y
·Remote sensing is a method used to assess S
R
water quality from a distance, using satellite E
imagery or other types of remote sensors. E
N
Remote sensing can provide a broad overview of M
water quality over a large area, but it may not be
S
O
as accurate as field tests or laboratory analysis. I
T N
E G
The results of water quality assessments can provide
valuable information about the health of aquatic
ecosystems and safety of drinking water. For
example, high levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus can lead to the growth of harmful algal
blooms, which can have a negative impacts on water
quality and aquatic life. Elevated levels of bacteria or
other contaminants in drinking water sources can
pose health risks to human populations.
REMEMBER:

It is important to maintain good quality to protect

the health of ecosystems and human populations.
In addition to regular water quality assessments,
it is also important to take steps to prevent
pollution and reduce our impact on water
resources.
WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS

GROUP 2
WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS

There are, in fact, three main types of water quality standards:

 drinking water standards,

 effluent standards, and

 surface water quality standards.

64
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS

65
 DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

Based on public health and epidemiological evidence and tempered by a healthy

dose of expediency, the national drinking water standards for many physical,
chemical, and bacteriological contaminants have been established by the EPA
under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Table 9.2 lists some of these
standards. The complete standards can be found in Title 40 Part 141 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (40CFR141).
66
 PRIMARY DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
TABLE 9.2
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

The list of chemical standards is quite long and includes the usual inorganics (lead, arsenic,
chromium, etc.) as well as some organics (e.g., DDT). Bacteriological standards for drinking water
are written in terms of the coliform indicators. The normal standard is presently less than 1 coliform
per 100 mL of treated drinking water.

One example of a physical standard is turbidity, or the interference with the passage of light. A
water that has high turbidity is cloudy, a condition caused by the presence of colloidal solids.
Turbidity does not in itself cause a health problem, but the colloidal solids may prove to be
convenient vehicles for pathogenic organisms.

68
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

The standards listed in Table 9.2 are examples of primary standards. Primary
standards specify maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) or treatment techniques.
They are set to protect public health and so are enforceable.

69
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

Secondary standards, on the other hand, are set to make the water more
palatable and usable, reducing, for example, unpleasant tastes and corrosivity
(Table 9.3). These standards are not enforceable.

70
 SECONDARY DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
TABLE 9.3
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

For example, the secondary standard for chloride is 250 mg/L, a point at which water has a distinct
salty taste. There is no primary standard for chloride because before the salt can become harmful it
will taste so bad that nobody would drink the water. Iron likewise is not a health problem (and, in
fact, is important for healthy blood), but high iron concentrations make water appear red and
discolor laundry. Manganese gives water a blue color and similarly can discolor laundry and
ceramic surfaces, such as bathtubs.

72
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

Maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) are also not enforceable but apply to the primary
contaminants. These goals are set at levels that present no known or anticipated health effects.
Therefore, they may be lower than MCLs due to technological or economic issues. In other words,
it may be so expensive to reduce a contaminant to a concentration at which there are no known
effects that the decision is made to accept an increased health risk in order to reduce the cost of
compliance.

73
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

Because science and technology evolve, the EPA continues to review data to determine whether
substances known or anticipated to occur in public water systems need to be regulated under the
SDWA. This review process results in a contaminant candidate list (CCL). CCL 1, published in
1998, had 60 contaminants. CCL 2, published in 2005, had 51 contaminants that were not removed
from CCL 1 through the regulatory determination process.

74
DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS

The draft CCL 3, published in 2008, had 104 contaminants: 93 chemicals or chemical groups and
11 microbiological contaminants out of the approximately 7500 chemicals and microbes evaluated.
Contaminants on the CCL are studied to determine how to detect them, whether they occur in
drinking water, what health effects they have, and how to remove them. As of July 2008 the EPA
had determined that no regulatory action is appropriate or necessary for 9 contaminants on CCL 1
and 11 on CCL 2.

75
STANDARDS
EFFLUENT

EFFLUENT STANDARDS

76
STANDARDS
EFFLUENT STANDARDS
EFFLUENT

The Clean Water A ct (CWA) is use d to reduce th e flow of pollu ta nts into
natural wate rcourse s. A ll poin t source discharge rs to natural w atercourses are
requ ired to obta in a National P ollution Discharge Elimination Syste m (N PD ES)
perm it (40C FR122). (B usine sses discha rging to a sew er system rather tha n a
natural w atercourse are not re quire d to obtain an NPD ES permit; howe ver, they
must obta in permits from th e munic ipa l treatment pla nts re ceiving t he w aste. )

77
STANDARDS
EFFLUENT

Alth ough some de tractors have la beled these “ permits to continue polluting, ”
the pe rmitting system h as nevertheless h ad a major bene ficial effe ct on the
quality o f surface waters. Typical efflue nt sta ndards fo r a domestic wastewater
trea tme nt plant ra nge from 5 to 20 mg/L B OD , for e xample . The intent is to
tigh te n these limits as required to e nhance wa ter quality.

78
SURFACE WATER

STANDARDS
QUALITY

SURFACE WATER
QUALITY STANDARDS

79
 SURFACE WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
SURFACE WATER

STANDARDS
QUALITY

Tied to th e efflue nt standa rd s are su rface water sta ndards, often

called “stream standards.” All surface waters in the united states are
classified according to a system of standards based on their greatest
beneficial use. The highest classification is usually reserved for
p r i s t i n e w a t e r s , w h i c h a r e o f t e n u s e d a s s o u r c e s o f d r i n k i n g w a t e r.
80
SURFACE WATER

STANDARDS
QUALITY

The next highest classification includes waters that have had wastes
discharged into them but that nevertheless exhibit high levels of
q u a l i t y. T h e c a t e g o r i e s c o n t i n u e i n o r d e r o f d e c r e a s i n g q u a l i t y, w i t h
the lowest water quality useful only for irrigation and transport.

81
SURFACE WATER

STANDARDS
QUALITY

The C WA s e c t i o n 305(b) established the National Wa t e r Quality I n v e n t o r y,

highlighting which waterbodies are meeting water quality standards and which are
n o t . T h e C WA s e c t i o n 3 0 3 ( d ) e s t a b l i s h e d a p r i o r i t i z e d l i s t o f i m p a i r e d w a t e r s t h a t
need total maximum daily loads (TMDLs). A TMDL is the maximum amount of a
pollutant a waterbody can receive from all sources, point and nonpoint, to still
meet water quality standards. TMDLs used at the watershed level can result in
increased focus on prevention and treatment of nonpoint source pollution,
including trading among point and nonpoint sources and regulating nonpoint
sources, as well as a focus on reducing or eliminating combined sewer overflows
(CSOs). CSOs occur after rain and snowmelt events in older urban areas that have
one sewer system to handle both stormwater and sewage.
82
SURFACE WATER

STANDARDS
QUALITY

The objective is to attempt to establish the highest possible classification

for all surface waters and then to use the NPDES permits to turn the screws
o n p o l l u t e r s , e n h a n c e t h e w a t e r q u a l i t y, a n d i n c r e a s e t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
watercourse. Once at a higher classification, no discharge would be allowed
that would degrade the water to a lower quality level. The objective is to
attain eventually pure water in all surface watercourses. As pollyannaish as
this may sound, it is an honorable goal, and the thousands of engineers and
scientists who devote their professional careers to achieving that end
understand the joy of small victories and share in the ultimate dream of
p o l l u t i o n - f r e e w a t e r.
83
 WATER
TREATMENT
WATER TREATMENT
Many aquifers and isolated surface water are of high water quality and maybe pumped from the supply and
transmission network directly to any number of end uses, including human consumption, irrigation,
industrial processes, and fire control. Here, water supply must receive varying degrees of treatment prior to
the distribution.

The figure shown on the left is a

typical water treatment plant.
Such plants are made up of series
of reactors or unit operations, with
water flowing from ne to the next
to achieve a desired end product
The following are the most important processes in water treatment:

❑SOFTENING
❑COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
❑SETTLING
❑FILTRATION
❑DISINFECTION
❑OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES
❑ SOFTENING
⮚ Water softening is achieved either by adding chemicals that form insoluble precipitates or by ion exchange. Chemicals
used for softening include ammonia, borax, calcium hydroxide, or trisodium phosphate , usually in conjunction with
sodium carbonate
⮚ Water softening is a process in which the ions of calcium and sometimes irons are removed. By doing this, the water
softening removes the offending minerals from the water.
⮚ Hardness is caused by multivalent cations that dissolve from soils and rocks. Some water (both surface water and
groundwater) need hardness removed to use them a potable water source.
⮚ TOTAL HARDNESS (TH) is defined as the sum of the multivalent cations in the water.

⮚ Typical units for hardness are mg/L as CaCO and meq/L. To convert a concentration in mg/L to meq/L, divide the
concentration by the substances equivalent weight (EW).
⮚ A substance’s equivalent weight is calculated by dividing its atomic weight(AW) or molecular
weight (MW) by its valence or ionic charge (n, which is always positive).

To convert to the standard unit mg/L CaCO, the meq/L concentration is multiplied by the equivalent
weight of CaCO, which is 50.0 mg/meq.
Sample Problem: The concentration of calcium in a water sample is 100mg/L. What is the concentration in (a)
meq/L and (b) mg/L as CaCO3.

Solution: The valence or ionic charge of calcium is +2, so n is 2 eq/mol. Calcium’s atomic weight is 40.1g/mol. Therefore, its
equivalent is:

(a) The concentration in meq/L is then simply obtained through unit conversion

(b) Again, the concentration in mg/L as CaCO3 is simply obtained through unit conversion
❑ COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
⮚ Coagulation is the chemical alteration of the colloidal particles to make them stick together to form larger particles
called flocs. Raw surface water entering a water treatment plant usually has significant turbidity caused by tiny
(colloidal) clay and silt particles. These particles have a natural electrostatic charge that keeps them continually in
motion and prevents them from colliding and sticking together. Chemicals known as coagulants, such as alum
(aluminum sulfate), and coagulant aids, such as lime and polymers, are added to the water, first to neutralize the charge
on the particles and then to aid in making the tiny particles “sticky” so they can coalesce and form large, quick-settling
particles. The purpose is to clear the water of the suspended colloidal solids by building larger particles that readily
settle.

Charge neutralization occurs when the coagulant (e.g., aluminum ions) is

used to counter the charges on the colloidal particles, illustrated on Figure
10.23. The colloidal particles in natural waters are commonly negatively
charged and, when suspended in water, repel each other due to their like
charges.
The second mechanism is bridging, in which the colloidal particles stick
together by virtue of the macromolecules formed by the coagulant, as
illustrated in Figure 10.24. The macromolecules (or polymers) have positive
charge sites, by which they attach themselves to colloids, bridging the gap
between adjacent particles and creating larger particles
Problem: Given the following jar test results, which polymer dose should be used?
Container No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Alum (mg/L) 6 6 6 6 6 6
Polymer (mg/L) 0.25 0.5 1 2 3 4
Turbidity (NTU) 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.7 1

Solution: Graph the dose versus the turbidity (Figure 10.25). While the lowest turbidity is obtained at a dose of 2
mg/L, this turbidity is not much lower than the turbidity obtained at half that dose. In addition, the minimum point on
the curve may be between 1 and 2 mg/L. If time permits, it may be useful to run another test. However, since the dose
chosen is an estimate, the operator may try 1 mg/L in the plant and adjust the dosage as needed.
Why does the turbidity increase at higher polymer doses in the previous example? The net effect of
coagulation is to destabilize the colloidal particles so they have the propensity to grow into larger
particles. But too high of a coagulant dose or a coagulant aid dose will restabilize the particles by
creating positive (rather than negative) particles or creating particles with large surface areas and low
densities.

As mentioned previously, a metal salt used as a coagulant can affect the alkalinity of the water.

The relationship is 1 meq/L coagulant consumes 1 meq/L of alkalinity and generates 1 meq/L of
chemical sludge (10.10) The total sludge generated can be calculated as

Total sludge = Chemical sludge + SS removed

Problem: Based on jar test results, 51 mg/L of alum is used to coagulate a sample containing 114 mg/L
suspended solids. How many mg/L as CaCO3 of natural alkalinity are consumed? What is the mass rate
of sludge generated if suspended solids are reduced to 10 mg/L? Assume Al(OH)3 is precipitated (EW =
26.0 mg/meq). The plant treats 100,000 gpd.
• Problem: Based on jar test results, 51 mg/L of alum is used to coagulate a sample containing 114 mg/L suspended solids.
How many mg/L as CaCO3 of natural alkalinity are consumed? What is the mass rate of sludge generated if suspended
solids are reduced to 10 mg/L? Assume Al(OH)3 is precipitated (EW = 26.0 mg/meq). The plant treats 100,000 gpd.
• Solution: To use Equation 10.10, the concentration of alum must be in meq/L. The EW of alum is 100 mg/meq, so,

Therefore, the amount of alkalinity consumed is:

• C= (0.51 meq/L)( 1 meq/L alkalinity / meq/L alum )(50mg/meq) = 26 mg/L as CaCo3
• Chemical Sludge= ( 0.51mg/L )(1 meq/L sludge / meq/L alum )( 26 mg/meq ) = 13 mg/L
• SS Removed = (114 mg/L) – (10mg/L) = 104 mg/L

• TOTAL SLUDGE = (0,100mgd)(13 mg/L + 104 mg/L)(8.34) = 98 lb/day

❑SETTLING
⮚ In water treatment, settling is an operation that removes suspended particles from the water to be treated. This is
a physical process that separates the particles with higher density than water from the liquid containing them.
Those particles are recovered at the bottom of the tank
⮚ Settling tanks are designed so as to approximate a plug-flow reactor. That is the intent is to minimize all
turbulence. The two critical design elements of a settling tank are the entrance and exit configurations because
this is where plug flow can be severely compromised.
⮚ Settling tanks work because the density of the
solids exceeds that of the liquid. The movement
of a solid particle through a fluid under the pull
of gravity is governed by a number of variables,
including:
▪ Particle Size (Volume)
▪ Particle Shape
▪ Particle Density
▪ Fluid Density
▪ Fluid Viscosity
Several assumptions are required in the analysis of ideal settling tanks.

▪ Uniform flow occurs within the settling tank. (This is the same as saying that there is ideal plug flow
because uniform flow is defined as a condition wherein all water flows horizontally at the same
velocity.)
▪ All particles settling to the bottom are removed. That is, as the particles drop to the bottom of the
column as depicted in Figure 10.28, they are removed from the flow.
▪ Particles are evenly distributed in the flow as they enter the settling tank.
▪ All particles still suspended in the water when the column of water reaches the far side of the tank are
not removed and escape the tank.

▪ As noted above, t is V/Q, where V = HWL, or if the surface area of the settling tank is defined as As =
W L, then V = AsH. Substituting yields
Problem : A water treatment plant settling tank has an overflow rate of 600 gal/day-ft2 and a depth of 6 ft. What is its
retention time?
SOLUTION:
Problem : A water treatment plant settling tank has an overflow rate of 600 gal/day-ft2 and a depth of 6 ft. What is its
retention time?
SOLUTION:
❑FILTRATION
⮚ During filtration, the clear water passes through filters that have different pore sizes and are made of different
materials. These filters remove dissolved particles and germs, such as dust, chemicals, parasites, bacteria, and
viruses
⮚ The rapid sand filter or rapid gravity filter is a type of filter used in water purification and is commonly used in
municipal drinking water facilities as part of a multiple stage treatment system. The operation of a rapid sand
filter involves two phases: filtration and washing.

Filters are a very important process in meeting turbidity

limits. A common design and operating parameter is the
filtration rate (or filter loading), which is the rate of water
applied to the surface area of the filter. The calculation and
units, such as, gpm/ft2, are similar to those for overflow rate.
This rate can vary from about 2 to 10 gpm/ft2 but may be
limited to 2 or 3 gpm/ft2 by state regulations. Backwash rates
generally range from 10 to 25 gpm/ft2.
Problem: What is the filtration rate for a 25-ft by 20-ft filter if it receives 2 mgd?
Solution:
Problem: What is the filtration rate for a 25-ft by 20-ft filter if it receives 2 mgd?
Solution:
❑ DISINFECTION
⮚ Disinfection describes a process that eliminates many or all pathogenic microorganisms, except bacterial spores,
on inanimate objects. The water is disinfected to destroy whatever pathogenic organisms might remain.
Prechlorination may be done before filtration to help keep the filters free of growth and provide adequate
contact time with the disinfectant
⮚ Disinfection is accomplished by using chlorine, which is purchased as a liquid under pressure and released into
the water as chlorine gas using a chlorine feeder system. The dissolved chlorine oxidizes organic material,
including pathogenic organisms.
Problem A: 4.5 mgd water treatment plant uses 21 lb/day of chlorine for disinfection. If the daily chlorine demand
is 0.5 mg/L, what is the daily chlorine residual?

Solution: Chlorine demand is the dose required to reach the desired residual level. Therefore, the residual is the
difference between the chlorine applied and the chlorine demand.
Problem A: 4.5 mgd water treatment plant uses 21 lb/day of chlorine for disinfection. If the daily chlorine demand
is 0.5 mg/L, what is the daily chlorine residual?

Solution: Chlorine demand is the dose required to reach the desired residual level. Therefore, the residual is the
difference between the chlorine applied and the chlorine demand.
 ❑OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES
▪ In addition to the treatment processes already discussed, there are other steps that may or may not have to be taken
before the water is distributed.
▪ Stable water is in chemical balance and will not cause corrosion or scaling in the distribution system. Two tests are
used to determine the stability of water—the Marble Test and the Langelier Index.
▪ Water is considered stable when it is saturated with calcium carbonate. Depending on the cause of the stability
problem, unstable water can be stabilized by using recarbonation, acid addition, phosphate addition, alkali addition, or
aeration. Unstable water from reactions in the distribution system can be prevented by providing a suitable chlorine
residual throughout the distribution system
▪ Taste, odor, and color complaints are the most common types of complaints received by water utilities.
▪ Prevention of T&O problems is the key to their control. Prevention takes the form of source water management and
plant and distribution system maintenance.
▪ Fluoridation of the water or fluoride removal may also be necessary. Fluoride prevents tooth decay, but at
concentrations above approximately 1.5 mg/L, it also stains teeth brown.
WATER QUALITY

ASSESSING WATER
QUALITY

WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS

WATER SUPPLY
AND TREATMENT
THE END OF THE SLIDE!
THANK YOU EVERYONE.
GODBLESS