Lecture-1

CSE-3101

Computer Networking

Mala Rani Barman

Lecturer, Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
Sheikh Hasina University

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Books
Computer Networks (7th Edition)
Andrew S. Tanenbaum

Data Communications and Networking (6th Edition)

Behrouz A. Forouzan

Data And Computer Communications

William Stallings

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 Computer Networks

The old model of a single computer serving all of the

organization's computational needs has been replaced by one in
which a large number of separate but interconnected computers do
the job. These systems are called computer networks.

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other

computing hardware devices that are linked together through
communication channels and switches to facilitate communication
and resource-sharing among a wide range of users. 

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 Components of Computer Network

PC (Basically is a personal computer), NIC (Network Interface

Card), Hub , Switch , Router, Cables, Connectors, Modems,
connectors and physical transmission medium.
 Physical Transmission Medium

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Coaxial Cable

Optical fibre

laser communication systems

Wireless Communication
BNC RJ45
Connector Connector

OLTE

Modem
Wired Network Wireless Network

Hybrid Network
The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers,
and other devices are connected.

Commonly referred to as a linear bus,

all the devices on a bus topology are
connected by one single cable. The star topology resembles
spokes in a bicycle wheel

Larger networks use the extended star

topology also called tree topology. The mesh topology connects all devices
(nodes) to each other
A frame travels around the
ring, stopping at each node.

The dual ring topology allows

data to be sent in both directions.
 Protocol Hierarchies

To reduce design complexity, most networks are organized as a

stack of layers or levels. The purpose of each layer is to offer
certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from the
details of how the offered services are actually implemented. In a
sense each layer is a kind of virtual machine offering certain
services to layer above it.
A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on
how communication is to proceed.

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Example-1
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

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Fig.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter 12
 A five-layer network is illustrated in fig.2. The entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. The peer may be
process, hardware devices, or even human beings. In other words, it is the peers
that communicate by using the protocol. A set of layers and protocols called
network architecture.

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Fig.2 Layers, protocols, and interfaces
Example-2
An analogy may help explain the idea of multilayer communication.

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Fig.2 The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture
Imagine two philosophers (peer processes in layer 3), one of
whom speaks Urdu and English and one of whom speaks Chinese
and French.

Since they have no common language, they each engage a

translator (peer processes at layer 2), each of whom in turn contacts
a secretary (peer processes in layer 1). Philosopher -1 passes a
message (in English) across the 2/3 interface to his translator,
saying ''I like rabbits,'' as illustrated in Fig. 1-14.

The translators have agreed on a neutral language known to both

of them, Dutch, so the message is converted to ''Ik vind konijnen
leuk.'' The choice of language is the layer 2 protocol and is up to
the layer 2 peer processes.

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The translator then gives the message to a secretary for
transmission, by, for example, fax (the layer 1 protocol). When the
message arrives, it is translated into French and passed across the
2/3 interface to philosopher 2.

Note that each protocol is completely independent of the other

ones as long as the interfaces are not changed. The translators can
switch from Dutch to say, Finnish, at will, provided that they both
agree, and neither changes his interface with either layer 1 or layer
3.

Similarly, the secretaries can switch from fax to e-mail or

telephone without disturbing (or even informing) the other layers.
Each process may add some information intended only for its peer.
This information is not passed upward to the layer above.
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Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5

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Layers of networks deals with:
Addressing
Error control
Flow control
Multiplexing/De-multiplexing
Routing

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 The OSI Reference Model

This model is based on a proposal developed by the international

standard organization (ISO) as a first step toward international
standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (1983).

It was revised in 1995 and the model become OSI (Open System
interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting
open systems-that, systems that are open for communication with
other systems.

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Seven layers of the OSI model

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An exchange using the OSI model

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The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Physical Layer
Starting at the bottom and working up, the physical layer
handles the transmission of raw bits over a communications link.

The physical form (e.g., voltages, frequencies, timing) in which

data bits (binary values 0 and 1) are represented.

The type of modulation to be used for transmitting digital data

over analog transmission lines.

Interface to a transmission medium for example connector (RJ

45, BNC), MODEM/OLTE.

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Physical layer

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 Data link layer
Frames are constructed from data string by adding special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of each segment of data called
frame. This allows the receiving end to detect where each frame
begins and where it ends.

Error detection: Some form of error check is included in the frame

header. This is constructed by the ‘transmitting end’ based on the
contents of the frame, and checked by the receiving end.

Error correction: When a frame arrives and is corrupted or is lost

for any reason in the network, it is retransmitted.

Flow control: In general, not all communication devices in a

network operate at the same speed. Flow control provides a means of
avoiding a slow receiver from being swamped by data from a fast
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transmitter using some buffer.
If sender fails to get ack (in case of noise) then the sender sends
the same packet, therefore there will be duplication of packet at the
receiver. The situation is tackled by this layer.
All the above jobs are done by LLC sub-layer.
Channel sharing among users are done at MAC sub-layer.

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Data link layer

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Hop-to-hop delivery of Data Link Layer

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 The Network Layer
The network layer handles routing among nodes within a packet-
switched network. At this layer, the unit of data exchanged among
nodes is typically called a packet rather than a frame, although they
are fundamentally the same thing.

Correct ordering of packets to reflect the original order of data.

The control of ‘traffic congestion’ also belongs to the network

layer.
Internetworking: communication between two or more networks
(BGP).

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Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the
data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet
passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to
help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network
layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that,
among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver.

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Network layer

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Source-to-destination delivery

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 The Transport Layer
Efficient and cost-effective delivery of data across the network
from one host to another. The transport layer and higher layers
typically run only on the end hosts and not on the intermediate
switches or routers.

Divides the application data into segments of appropriately sized

for the layers below it.

Flow control and error control between hosts.

Splitting of data across multiple network connections, if necessary,

to improve throughput, and recombining at the other end.

TCP and UDP are the example of protocol of this layer 33

Transport layer

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The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another

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 The Session Layer
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between
end terminals.

It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between

the local and remote application.

It provides for full duplex, half duplex or simplex operation, and
establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart
procedures.

Correct ordering of messages when this function is not performed

by the transport layer.

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 The session layer provides: checkpoints or synchronization points to a stream of
data, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. During long
transmissions sometimes a host becomes disconnected in the midst of
communication then checkpointing allow them to continue from where they were
crashed.

You can use your computer to open a browser window to your favorite Web
site, then open a second window to the same server and follow different links in
each browser. The window can act independently because the Web server and
your computer have two independent sessions. 37
 The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the format of data exchanged
between peers, for example, whether an integer is 16, 32, or 64 bits long
and whether the most significant byte is transmitted first or last, or how a
video stream is formatted.
More explicitly, this layer is responsible for data translation into a
standard format. Examples are ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange, 7-bit character encoding) text, EBCDIC
(Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, 8-bit character
encoding), JPEG pictures and MP3 music formats. Conversion between
the binary representation of application data and a common format for
transmission between peer applications.
For example, the Presentation Layer can apply sophisticated
compression techniques so fewer bytes of data are required to represent
the information when it's sent over the network.
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This layer is also responsible for encryption and decryption for
security purposes, as well as data compression. It is sometimes
called the syntax layer.
 Application layer
This layer provides a consistent interface to the network for all
computer software i.e. provides OSI environment.
File transfer, web browser, e-mail etc are applications and
implemented using some application layer protocols. Application
layer protocols for above applications are File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) to transfer file between two hosts, HTTP to fetch web page
from a server, SMTP for e-mail.
This layer also provides security like cryptography, Digital
signature, Firewall etc.

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Summary of layers

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Hosts, routers, and link-layer switches; each contains a different set
of layers, reflecting their differences in functionality. 42