Maintenance and Installation

of Machinery
Chapter Two
Fundamental Theories of Damages

Prepared by Goitom k. (M.Sc.)

1
Contents:
• Fundamental Theories of Damages
• Typical Damages of Machine Parts
• Determination of the State of Damage
Fundamental Theories of Damages
What is damage /failure?
1. Inability to perform a normal function
2. Omission of occurrence or performance i.e.
failing to perform duty or expected action
3. A breakdown or decline in the performance
of something, or an occasion when
something stops working or stops working
adequately.
• If proper action is not taken against them,
Damages are causes for the loss of function -
ability or workability of a means of
production.
• Even with optimum design and operation
conditions damages are unavoidable i.e.
there is always a chance that things might go
wrong, we must accept this not ignore.
Thus damages are the reasons for the
existence of a maintenance organization.
Failures /damages could be:-
• Critical failure /damage:
– Lost of customer
– High downtime
– High repair cost
– Injury or lost of lives
• Non - critical failure – lesser effect
Organizations must discriminate and give
priority to critical failure : “why things fail”
& “how to measure the impact of failure”
Reasons for damages
Objective damages: Those are damages caused by
operational processes and environmental causes.
Subjective damages: These are caused by failure in
design, manufacturing, use operation and
maintenance.
Behaviour of Damages:
Sudden behaviour: use-value of equipment
diminishes instantly, in other words, sudden
breakdown of equipment takes place.
Continuous behaviour: use-value of equipment
decreases with time due to wear.
 Typical damages of equipment

1. Corrosion:
Corrosion is the destruction or deterioration of materials by chemical
or electrochemical reaction with the environment (destruction of
metals in all types of atmospheres and liquids, and at any temperature).
The Process of Corrosion:
Direct chemical Corrosion: is limited to conditions involving
highly corrosive environments or high temperature or both.
Examples: corrosion of metals left open in damp
environments and at high temperature; metals in contact
with strong acids or alkalis.

Electrochemical Corrosion: is characterized by movement of

metallic ions in solutions.
Examples: When zinc is placed in dilute hydrochloride acid
a vigorous reaction occurs, hydrogen gas is evolved and
zinc dissolves to form zinc chloride.
Kinds of Corrosion
a. Surface Corrosion (uniform attack)
- most common form of corrosion,
manifest (appear) over the entire
exposed surface or over a large area.
- Surface is destroyed nearly parallel to the
surface.
- Caused by influence of ambient
conditions on unprotected metal
surfaces.
-Metal becomes thinner and eventually
fails.
b.Pitting Corrosion:
- Pitting (small hole) is one of the most destructive
and insidious forms of corrosion.
- causes equipment failure because of perforation
with only a small percent weight loss of entire
equipment
- Difficult to detect because of their small size and
often are covered with corrosion products.
- Localized destruction of material (surface)
- It can take place below the surface affecting
the stresses (invisible).
c. Inter-crystalline Corrosion:
- Occurs at the grain boundary of metal alloys.
- May Cause sudden cracks.
d. Trans-crystalline Corrosion:
- Occurs through the grains of metal alloys.
e.Galvanic Corrosion (two-metal Corrosion)
 associated with the current of a galvanic cell made up of
two dissimilar metals.
 potential difference usually exists between two dissimilar
metals when they are immersed in a corrosive solution.
 If these metals are placed in contact, the potential
difference produces electron flow between them and
corrosion of the less corrosion resistant metal is
increased. The less resistant metal becomes anodic and
the more resistant metal cathodic.
Factors that stimulate corrosion
- Atmospheric corrosion is stimulated by damp atmosphere, since
a film of water is maintained on the surface which is an
essential condition for corrosion
- Oxygen dissolved in water
- Acids, acid gases in the atmosphere, sulphur compounds, coke,
coal dust, etc.
- Salts that dissociate in water producing acid reactions
- Contact of dissimilar metals
- Presence of depolarizing surfaces such as mill scale
- Non- uniformity within the metal
- Cold working process on metals result in increased rate of
attack by acids
- Corrosion on metals under stress is much more severe than
under ordinary conditions
Methods of minimizing corrosion
- Use of a coating of protective metal such as zinc,
tin, lead, etc
- Application of protective paints
- Rendering the surface of the metal passive
(immersing in nitric acid after it has been highly
poised immersing in fuming sulphuric acid)
Corrosion problems are pronounced (noticeable or
obvious), to a varying degree, in:
- Steam generating plants,
- Equipments in chemical plants,
- Pipes, and
- Structures
2. Wear
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in
relative motion which embraces the general concepts of all
aspects of the transmission and dissipation of energy. Friction,
wear, lubrication come under tribology.
Wear is undesired change of surface of machine components by
the removal of little particles caused by mechanical reasons.
Mostly wear is caused by friction of two mating parts.
Conditions that must be fulfilled:
- Pair of wear partners, consisting of a basic body and a mating
body.
- Relative motion between the contacting surfaces.
- A normal force between the basis & mating bodies.
- Other factors.
Relative motion:
can be sliding, rolling, drilling. The amount of motion,
direction and time behavior affect the resulting wear.
Normal force:
magnitude, direction and time behavior (static or
dynamic) affects the resulting wear.
Intermediate materials:
can be solid, liquid or gaseous. These materials are
mostly used in the form for lubricants.
Other factors that influence wear are:
like environmental conditions (temp., moisture,
presence of attacking gases, contaminating materials (
chips, dust,…).
Kinds of wear and tear
Depending on the motion we have
Kinematics wear:- sliding, rolling, drilling, or mixed
Static wear
Impact wear

Mechanisms of wear:
a. Stress interactions
- These are due to the combined action of load forces and
frictional forces.
- Lead to wear processes namely:
 surface fatigue, and
 abrasion.
i. Surface fatigue wear mechanisms
These phenomena may occur mainly due to
the action of stresses in or below the surfaces
without needing a direct physical solid contact
of the surfaces under consideration
 The effect of fatigue wear is especially
associated with repeated stress cycling in rolling
contact, and is accompanied by the generation
and propagation of cracks
 Surface fatigue effects are observed to occur in
journal bearings
ii.
Abrasive wear mechanisms
The effect of abrasion occurs in contact situations, in
which direct physical contact between two surfaces is
given, where one of the surfaces is considerably harder
than the other. The harder surface causes wear of the
softer material.

b. Material interactions
- These are due to intermolecular forces either between
the interacting solid bodies or between the interacting
solid bodies and the environmental atmosphere and/or
the interfacial medium
- lead to wear processes described broadly as
tribochemical reactions and adhesion.
i. Tribochemical wear mechanisms
In tribochemical wear the dynamic interactions between
the material components and the environment determine
the wear process, where the environment is the third
partner.

ii. Adhesive wear mechanisms

Adhesion is the ability of atomic structures to hold
themselves together and form surface bonds with other
atoms or surfaces with which they come into contact. The
adhesive wear processes are initiated by the interfacial
adhesive junctions which form if solid materials are in
contact on an atomic scale. Material is then transferred due
to adhesive joint formation which leads to rupture (break
out).
Wear Processes
a. Shearing process
Roughness points will be sheared off if the acting forces are
greater than the shear strength. This leads to the reduction of
roughness and increased percentage of contact area which
reduces energy concentration and wear velocity.
b. Elastic deformation
Big surface roughness result in low percentage of contact area
and high energy concentration in contact point. This may result
in high local stresses. In the elastic range this causes small
flattening or bending of roughness points. Repetition of this
process will cause local fatigue of material.
c. Plastic deformation
If the local stress produced exceeds the elastic limit, plastic
deformation takes place in flattening and bending the material
(no loss in mass).
Types of wear as related to lub application
Wear by Solid friction
- Solid friction occurs between the contacting surfaces where there is
no intermediate material
- In relation to the surface roughness we find wear process by
shearing, plastic and elastic deformation and heating of the surfaces
Wear by liquid friction
- The two mating bodies are completely separated from each other by
intermediate material, mostly a lubricant.
- Friction occurs in the lubricant, and wear is influenced by load,
relative velocity, temperature, viscosity of lubricant, the lubricating
gap.

Wear by mixed friction

- Simultaneous action of solid + liquid friction, cause by high roughness
or high load for the lubricating film. This results in metallic contact .
3. Fatigue
• Fatigue is the failure (or reduction in strength) of
a material under fluctuating stresses, which are
repeated a very large number of times.
• Fatigue failure begins with a hair-line crack which
develops at a point of discontinuity in the
material (notches, groves, fillets,…).
• Once a small crack develops, it propagates under
load to cause failure.
• Components subjected to fluctuating forces must
be designed for fatigue conditions.
 Surface conditions, residual stresses due to metal
working processes or metal treating processes,
stress concentration affect fatigue strength very
much. Hence, they should be considered properly
at design stage.
 Fatigue strength (the endurance limit) of materials
is greatly decreased by the presence of a corroding
medium.
 Alternating stresses tend to cause considerable
damage to any protective film formed in the
normal course of action of a corrosive medium.
Continual damage to this film may be a source of
the further development of cracks which
accelerate fatigue failure.
Determination of state of damage
• The state of damage of a machinery or one of its
elements is the undesired deviation from the
required state fixed in the design procedures.
• Knowledge of the state of damage in connection
with the determination of the survival probability
is essential for setting the date and kind of
maintenance measures to be taken.
• Knowledge of the state of damage provides a
collection of data or information about the state
of machinery, which in turn can be used for
setting meaningful maintenance routines.
 The state of damage of an equipment depends on:-
- kind and conditions of damage, and
- duration of operation of equipment.
 Determination of the state of damage is part of technical
diagnostics and maintenance technique.
 Technical diagnostics is the determination of the technical
state of damage of an equipment, evaluation of the state and
collection of information for deciding the date and kind of
maintenance . This is normally done without disassembling
while the equipment is in operation.
 Conclusions arrived at about the state of damage of an
equipment are probabilistic, and the accuracy of results
obtained depends on the accuracy of the method of
investigation used, sampling techniques and measuring
techniques.
 Measuring Values for the State of Damage
Direct measured quantities
 The direct measuring technique determines the difference
between the initial state and the state after wear process.
 The measurements taken can be direct linear, volumetric or
mass quantities. These measured quantities can be absolute or
related to duration of operation.
 Absolute measurement gives the amount wear as an average
worn out thickness.
 Related measurement gives amount of wear per unit time of
operation.
 Direct measurement gives dimensions of parts. If the wear is not
constant over a surface, the measurement should be done in
different planes with different orientations.
 Direct measurement is usually done after disassembly. But it can
also be made without disassembling provided there is easy
access to the measured quantities
Indirect measuring quantities
During the operation of a machine or parts of
it, certain signals are produced which are
related to the state of operation of the
machine.
These signals, which are known as the
diagnostic parameters, if properly analyzed
provide some information regarding the state
of the machine.
It should be noted that influence from the
environment introduces errors in the measured
results.
Condition monitoring techniques
Depending on how the monitoring is done, the
techniques can be classified as:
a. On-load monitoring techniques:
mostly carried out without interruption of
operation.
- visual, aural, tactile inspection of accessible
components
- temperature monitoring
- lubricant monitoring
- leak detection
- vibration/sound monitoring
- corrosion monitoring
b. Off-load monitoring Techniques:
Off-load monitoring techniques require
shutdown of the unit. These include:
- visual, aural and tactile inspection of
normally inaccessible or moving parts;
- crack detection;
- leak detection;
- vibration testing ;
- corrosion monitoring.
Failure (Condition) Monitoring Techniques
 Most failures give some warning before they
occur. This warning is called potential failure.
 Potential failure is defined as an identifiable
physical condition which indicates that a
functional failure is either about to occur or it is in
the process of occurring, i.e. a functional failure
is the inability of an equipment in meeting a
specified performance standard.
 Techniques of detecting potential failures are
known as on-condition maintenance tasks.
Potential Failures and On-condition Maintenance:
If evidence can be found that some component
/equipment is in the final stage of failure, it may
be possible to take action to prevent complete
failure and /or its consequences.
 The P-F curve is employed to show what happens
in the final stages of failures. The P-F curve shows:
 where failure in the equipment starts to occur;
 where equipment condition deteriorates to the
point at which the failure can be detected; and
finally,
 where the equipment has failed indicating
functional failure.
P is point at which it is possible to detect
whether failure is or is about to occur is
known as potential failure.
F is point where failure has taken place
(functional failure
Between points P and F it may be possible
to take action to prevent functional failure
or to avoid consequences of functional
failure.
Tasks designed to detect potential failures
are known as on-condition tasks.
 On-condition tasks entail checking for potential
failures so that action can be taken to prevent
functional failure or to avoid the consequences of
the functional failure and this is known as
predictive maintenance or condition-based
maintenance.
 On-condition tasks are carried out at intervals less
than the P-F interval, where the P-F interval is the
interval between the occurrence of a potential
failure and its deterioration into functional failure.
 The P-F interval is the warning period, or the lead time to
failure, or the failure development period.
 The on-condition task is done at intervals which are less
than the P-F interval, usually at a frequency equal to half
the P-F interval.
 This ensures that the inspection will detect the potential
failure before functional failure takes place.
 In applying the P-F curve to condition monitoring, the
sooner a potential failure can be detected, the longer the
P-F interval would be.
 Longer P-F interval would entail that the frequency
interval for inspection would be done less often.
 Hence there would be more time to take appropriate
actions to avoid the consequence of failure.
Categories of Condition Monitoring Techniques
Condition monitoring techniques are designed to detect specific
symptoms which are related to the state of damage of the equipment.
1. Dynamic Monitoring
 Dynamic monitoring detects potential failures which cause
emission of abnormal energy in the form of waves such as
vibration and noise.
 Equipment which contain moving parts that vibrate are
monitored dynamically. This is done by measuring how much
the system vibrates.
Techniques employed
 broad band vibration analysis (changes in vibration characteristics are
monitored)
 constant bandwidth analysis (changes in vibration characteristics are
monitored by using accelerometers)
 real time analysis (measurement of vibrational signals; shock analysis)
 ultrasonic analysis (changes in sound pattern are monitored)
2. Particle Monitoring
 Particle monitoring detects potential failures which
cause particles of different sizes and shapes to be
released into the environment in which the component
is operating.
 These include wear particles and corrosion particles.

Techniques employed in particle monitoring

 Ferrography (Wear and corrosion particles are
monitored by taking a representative sample of oil)
 Real time ferromagnetic sensors
 Graded filtration
 Sedimentation
3. Chemical Monitoring
 Chemical monitoring detects potential failures which
cause traceable quantities of chemical elements to be
released in to the environment.
 This technique is used to detect elements in the
lubricating oil which indicate occurrence of potential
failure elsewhere in the system.
 They are employed to detect wear, corrosion, leakage.
Some of the techniques are :
- Atomic emission spectroscopy
- X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
- Infrared spectroscopy
- Electro-chemical corrosion monitoring
- Exhaust emission analyzers
- Colour indicator
4. Physical Effects Monitoring
 Physical effects monitoring includes changes in the physical
appearance or structure of equipment which can be detected
directly.
 The monitoring techniques involved detect potential failures in
the form of cracks, wear, corrosion, etc. Some of the techniques
employed are:
- Liquid dye penetrants
- Magnetic particle inspection
- Ultrasonic techniques
- X-ray radiography
- Light probes
- Deep-probe endoscope
- Oil odor
- Strain gauge
- Viscosity monitoring
5. Temperature Monitoring
 These techniques look for potential failures which
cause rise in temperature of an equipment itself.
 Monitoring techniques included here, among
others, are:
 Infrared scanning
 Temperature indicating painting

6. Electrical Effects Monitoring

 These techniques look for changes in resistance,
conductivity, resistivity etc. The techniques
includes the following.
 Electrical resistance monitoring
 Potential monitoring
 Power factor testing
 Breaker timing testing
General Purpose monitoring techniques
 Thermal, lubricant and vibration monitoring techniques
are considered to be general purpose monitoring
techniques.
 In each of these three techniques, the parameter being
monitored contains information that has been
transmitted through the machine.
1. Lubricant monitoring
- The oil which circulates through a machine carries with
its evidence of the condition of parts encountered.
- Examination of the oil and any particles it has carried
with it allows monitoring of the machine on-load or at
shut-down.
Lubricant examination covers
- debris deposited,
- debris in suspension, and
- condition of oil.
a. Examination of debris collected
Debris deposited are the larger particles carried along by
the lubricant which can be collected by filters or
magnetic collectors.
- Examination of the debris under the microscope to
establish size and shape provides a good
information regarding the state of damage of the
machine.
Debris in suspension are the smaller particles collected
by the lubricant which remain in suspension.
- Examination of the debris in suspension gives the
earliest warning of component damage.
A change in the rate of debris collection indicates
the change in the condition of the machine as
related to wearing out.
- Shape of debris collected carries information as
to the wear mechanism taking place.
- Normal shape of wear particles tends to be flat;
- cutting or abrasive wear results in spiral shaped
debris;
- surface fatigue failures produce larger angular
particles.
b. Condition of oil used
Condition of used oil itself can be examined for
indication of other malfunctions .
- foaming of oil: cause is excessive churning or
passage under pressure through restricti
- darkened colour of oil: caused by oxidation of oil,
excess temperature, combustion or other chemical
products reacting with the oil used.
- Malfunctions that can be detected by lub monitoring
- damages of transmission components like gears,
shafts, bearings, etc.
- blockage of ducts, pipes, etc.
2. Thermal monitoring
Monitoring the temperature of a component in
a machine is undertaken for one of three
purposes:
i. To enable temperature control of a process
ii. To detect increase in heat generation due
to some malfunction such as damage of
bearings
iii. To detect changes in the heat transmitted
through and out of the body of the machine
caused by a change in some component
such as failed coolant circulation or ash
build-up in boilers, etc.
Temperature monitoring can be carried out
- at a point within the body of the plant (eg.
measurement of water temperature in a boiler),
- or at the surface of a component (eg. bearing
housing).
Temperature monitoring devices are diverse and can
be classified as:
- contact sensors, and
- non-contact sensors (pyrometers)
Malfunctions monitored thermally
Possible areas where thermal monitoring can be
applied.
- Bearing damages which result in heat generation and
heating of the bearing unit and other units that come
in contact with the bearing unit.
- Failure of coolant or lubrication can be detected by a
temperature rise of appropriate bodies; such failures
could result from pump failure, drive fault, blockage
in piping, valves or filter, or damaged heat exchanger.
- Incorrect heat generation like in internal combustion
engines.
- Build-up of unwanted materials such as sediment is
pipes, ash in boilers or ducts, etc.
- Damage of insulating materials.
- Faults of electric components.
3. Vibration/noise monitoring
Changes in vibration characteristics are indicative of
trouble.
The causes of vibration are
- unbalanced rotating and reciprocating parts,
- looseness in the fit between components,
- deflection of load carrying members,
- misalignment,
- damages in transmission components, etc.
The equipment employed for vibration monitoring
are vibrometers and accelerometers of wide
variety.
Possible faults that can be detected by vibration
monitoring include:
- wear or failure of bearings;
- presence of unbalance in moving parts;
- changes in clearances;
- cracks in shafts and other moving
components subjected to cyclic loads.