TOPIC 2.

0
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM AND
CAPACITY ANALYSIS

1
Topic Outlines

2.1 Traffic Stream Characteristic and Flow Trend

2.2 Speed Analysis – Type of Speed and Speed
Studies Application
2.3 Headway and Spacing Analysis
2.4 Traffic Capacity and LOS Analysis for Expressway
and Two Lane Rural Highway.
2.5 Intersection Design- Signalized and Unsignalized
Junction
2.6 Traffic Control Devices

2
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, students should be
able to:
 Analyze traffic studies data for specific application.
(CO1-PO1)
 Design appropriate signalized and unsignalized
junction using stated method. (CO2-PO3)
 Design appropriate traffic control system at the
designed junction. (CO2-PO3)

3
 TOPIC 2.1
Traffic Stream
Characteristic and
Flow Trend

4
Common traffic parameters that are of

traffic engineers / planners interest

include:

Traffic
Flow or Volume (q)
Speed (u @ v)
Density or Concentration (k @ D)
Headway (H)

5
Traffic Flow or Volume (q)
Define as the number of vehicles passing
a specific reference point on a road
section within a specified period of time.

6
Traffic Volume or Flow (q)

The count can be directional or all

directions.
Typical units:
vehicles/hour (hourly traffic-vph),
vehicles/day (daily traffic),
vehicles/year (annual traffic), etc.

7
Traffic Volume or Flow, q (Cont..)
Traffic flow data is usually collected to obtain
factual data concerning the movement of vehicles
at selected points on the street, example:
(a) Annual Traffic
(i) To compute crash rates
(ii) To indicate trends in volume

(b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) & Annual Average

Daily Traffic (AADT)
(i) To measure present demand
(ii) To programme capital improvements

(c) Hourly Traffic

(i) To determine peak periods
(ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies
(iii) To establish traffic controls
8
ADT (veh/day)
• ADT – Distribution of traffic flow every day from
Monday to Sunday
Example:

Day Average Daily Volume

Monday 1820
Tuesday 1588
Wednesday 1406
Thursday 1300
Friday 1289
Saturday 1275
Sunday 1332
Total (veh in week) 10010
ADT (veh/day) 1430 9
AADT (veh/day/year)
• AADT – Distribution of traffic flow every day for the
whole year (365 days)

• Acquired by doing survey work twice in a year.

• Each survey take a week with 6 months interval

AADT = volume of traffic volume of traffic in

+
in 7 days (March) 7 days (Sept)

14

10
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
 Maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during 60 consecutive minutes.

 PHV used for:

- Design of the geometric character of highway (intersection
signalization, channelization).
- Capacity analysis
- Development of parking regulation.

11
Traffic Composition
 Vehicular traffic consists of various types
of vehicle – i.e. various sizes, performances,
and characteristics.

 A vehicle is converted into an Equivalent Passenger

Car unit (PCU) for consistency in interpreting road
traffic performance, congestion, road geometry and
traffic signal analysis and design.

 PCU is defined as the standard unit measurement

which is designed to give the effect of an equivalent
numbers of passenger cars.

12
 PCU Converter For Road Section

Traffic Composition Rural Urban

Private Car, Taxi, Trishawmotor 1.0 1.0
Small Good Vehicle & Van 2.0 2.0
Medium Good Vehicle & Lorries 2.5 2.5
Heavy Good Vehicle & Lorries 3.0 3.0
Buses 3.0 3.0
Motorcycle 1.0 0.75

13
PCU
Example:
The traffic flow of a rural road is 350veh/hr. The
volume consist of 200 cars, 50 medium lorries, 50
buses and 50 motorcycles. Determine the traffic

volume in PCU
Answer:
Car 200 x 1.0 = 200
Medium Lorries 50 x 2.5 = 125
Bus 50 x 3.0 = 150
Motorcycle 50 x 1.0 = 50
525 pcu/hr
14
Rationale of PCU
Example:
Traffic volumes on a section of rural road during
morning peak hour is 500 veh/h and during the
evening peak hour is also 500 veh/h.

Can you comment on the traffic flow conditions for both

situations? (e.g. which peak hour traffic would you think is
the busiest or congested condition compare to the other?)

Answer:
It would be difficult for us to say which peak hour is
representing the congested situation as both traffic
volumes are equal in terms of veh/h.
15
If information of traffic compositions for both peak-hours are
available as follows:
For AM Peak: 50% cars, 20% medium lorries, 10% buses,
and 20% motorcycles.
For PM Peak: 30% cars, 25% medium lorries,15% heavy
lorries, 15% buses, 15% motorcycles.

Can you describe the differences between the two peak hour
traffic in terms of traffic flow conditions?

Answer:
Let us express the peak hour traffic in terms of pcu/h, i.e.

16
 TOPIC 2.2
Speed Analysis

17
Speed (u)
Speed is defined as the distance travelled per
unit time. The parameter is usually used to
describe the quality of journey and the
performance of road network in accommodating
traffic demand.

Types of speed:
i) Spot Speed,
ii) Journey/Overall Speed,
iii) Running Speed,
iv) Time Mean Speed, and
v) Space Mean Speed.

18
i) Spot Speed

This speed is the instantaneous speed of

a vehicle passing a point on the roadway.

If the data for a group of vehicles is collected

properly, results from the sample should
represent the speed characteristics of the
entire population of vehicles passing the site.

19
i) Spot Speed (cont..)

Time taken from A to B = t

A Distance = S B

S
speed 
t

If S  100 meters, then the speed

measured is known as Spot Speed.

20
Typical Use of Spot Speed
 To establish speed trends
 Traffic control planning
- establish speed limits
- determine safe speeds at curves
- establish proper location for traffic signs
- establish lengths of no–passing zones
- evaluate intersection sight distance
 Before–and–after studies
 Accident analysis
 Geometric design – i.e. road alignments and stopping
sight distance
21
Journey Speed & Running Speed
Journey/overall speed is the distance divided by
total journey time. Total journey time includes all
delays due to traffic.

Journey speed = distance/total journey time

Running speed is the distance divided by running time,

i.e. total journey time minus delays. (Running time is the
time that the vehicle is actually in motion.)

Running speed = distance/(total journey time – delays)

Both speeds are usually as a result of travel time and

delay study – used to evaluate road performance.
22
 Example:
Evaluate journey & running speeds for the following situation & interpret
the result:
A B
J1 J2 J4 J5

J3

8 km

Assume Total Travel Time including delay due to traffic = 32 minutes

Assume Delays at each junction: J1 = 5 min, J2 = 5 min, J3 = 3 min,
J4 = 4 min, & J5 = 6 min.

Answer:
Average Journey Speed =
Average Running Speed =

Interpretation:
Since Journey Speed  Running Speed  Drivers experience heavy
traffic flow & inefficient traffic control system at junctions. System requires
improvements. 23
Time Mean Speed & Space Mean Speed
Time mean speed is the average of speed of total
vehicles speed passing a reference point of a road
Section. Equal to arithmetic mean.

Time Mean Speed = Total speed of vehicles/Total vehicles

Space mean speed is the total distance a vehicle pass

through divided by the total time the vehicle acquire.

Space Mean Speed = Total distance/ Total journey time

24
Difference between TMS and SMS
Example:
Determine the average speed of a ca moving from A to
B at speed of 50km/hr and back to A at speed 70km/hr.
Distance between A and B is 1km.
Answer:
1. Time Mean Speed = Arithmetic Speed

2. Space Mean Speed

i. Consider distance of both ways = 2x1= 2km
ii. Time from A-B,tAB =
Time from B-A, tBA =
SMS =
25
Exercise

Exam Question : April 2011(2a) - 10marks

A data collector uses speed radar detector to
measure the speed distribution at KM 10 of the
Federal Highway. Speed readings on 5 vehicles are
90km/hr, 75km/hr, 110km/hr, 55 km/hr and 80km/hr
respectively. Assuming all vehicles were traveling at
constant speed along this roadway section,
calculate the Time Mean Speed and Space Mean
Speed. Then, given the average headway of 5
sec/veh, determine the average density of the
particular road section.

26
 TOPIC 2.2.1
STATISTIC & TRAFFIC
DATA ANALYSIS

27
Statistic
 Statistics is the branch of scientific method which
deals with the data obtained by counting or
measuring the properties of population of natural
phenomena.

 This branch of study includes:

- The process of collecting data
- The study of manipulation and arrangement of
figures using mathematical processes, and
- Interpretation of the figures

28
Traffic Data Analysis

Understanding of traffic data – types of

data, data presentation and description,
validity, basic statistical distribution of the
data, etc.

29
Accuracy of Sampling
 Sampling is necessary because it is usually
impracticable to test the entire population.

 Each and every sample must be selected in a

random manner so that it is representative of the
population from which it is drawn

 A value by sampling is absolutely accurate only for

the sample itself. For the population which it
represents, a sample can only give an estimation
whose accuracy is expressed in terms of probability.

 Therefore, the greater the size of the sample (i.e.

number of observations) the greater the confidence
that can be placed on the estimation for the
population.
30
Data Description
Data is an information which in general has
2 main characteristics;

a) Qualitative – involves non-numerical data,

e.g. consider “YES” or “NO” as an answer to
questionnaires
b) Quantitative – involves numerical data

31
Quantitative Data

Two ways of describing data are:

 Numerically
 Graphically

32
Numerical Descriptive Measures

Two most common measures are:

• Measures of Central Tendency

• Measures of Scatter

33
Measures of Central Tendency

i. Arithmetic Mean (or simply known as ‘mean’)

– Mean of a set of measurements is the sum
of the measurements divided by the total
number of measurements:

( f X ) i i
X i 1
n
where i = 1,2,3,…….. n
fi 1
i

34
Measures of Central Tendency (cont..)
ii. Median
The median of a set of measurements is the middle
value when the measurements are arranged in order
of magnitude. It, therefore, divides a histogram and a
frequency polygon into two equal areas.
E.g., consider this set of data: 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10

Median = 50th percentile = P50

iii. Mode – is the measurement that occurs most often

35
Measures of Scatter
i. Range – the range of a set of measurements
is defined to be the difference between the
largest and the smallest measurements of the
set.
eg. 15, 15, 20, 21, 30, 12, 11, 5, 40, 40, 26

Range = largest – smallest = 40 – 5 = 35

36
Measures of Scatter (cont..)
ii. Percentile – the rth percentile of a set of n
measurements arranged in order of magnitude
is that value that has r% of the measurements
below it.
100
90 (a) 85th percentile of X = a

80
Cumulative frequency, %

70
60 (b) 50th percentile of X = b
50
40
30
20 (c) 15th percentile of X = c
10
0
(c) (b) (a) 37
X
Measures of Scatter (cont..)
iii. Variance (S2)

 i
X 2
 nX 2

S2  i 1
n 1

or

2
n
 n

 fX   fX i
i
2

S 2  i 1   i 1 
 f   f 

  38
Measures of Scatter (cont..)
iv. Standard Deviation (SD)

SD is a measure of the average deviation of

readings from their mean.

SD  variance

v. Standard Error (SE)

SD
SE 
n
39
Graphical Descriptive Measures

i. Histogram
Frequency (numbers)

speed class (km/h)

40
Graphical Descriptive Measures (cont..)

i. Cumulative Frequency Curve

100
Cumulative frequency, %

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Speed (Xi), km/h 41
Example 1: Spot Speed Analysis
Analyse the following spot speed data based on a
sample of 172 vehicles traversing a section of sub
urban roadway.
Speed class Frequency
(km/h) fi
20 - 24 1
25 - 29 3
30 - 34 6
35 - 39 13
40 - 44 25
45 - 49 34
50 - 54 31
55 - 59 27
60 - 64 18
65 - 69 9
70 - 74 4
75 - 79 1 42
Total 172
Solution
Tabulate data as follows
Speed class Mid point Frequency % of Cum.    
2
v (km/h) vi Fi Freq. Freq. (%) Fi * v i Fi * v i
20 - 24 22 1 0.6 0.6 22 484
25 - 29 27 3 1.7 2.3 81 2187
30 - 34 32 6 3.5 5.8 192 6144
35 - 39 37 13 7.6 13.4 481 17797
40 - 44 42 25 14.5 27.9 1050 44100
45 - 49 47 34 19.8 47.7 1598 75106
50 - 54 52 31 8 65.7 1612 83824
55 - 59 57 27 15.7 81.4 1539 87723
60 - 64 62 18 10.5 91.9 1116 69192
65 - 69 67 9 5.2 97.1 603 40401
70 - 74 72 4 2.3 99.4 288 20736
75 - 79 77 1 0.6 100 77 5929
Total 600 172     8659 453623
43
Solution (cont..)
n

 Mean speed = =( f v ) i i

v i 1
n

f i 1
i

 n  n 
2

 Std deviation:   f i vi
2
  f i vi   
 462325  8745  
2
 i 1  
SD    i 1     
 f   f    172  172  
     
   
=

Can you compute the variance and standard error for the
data?

What can you say about this result?

44
Density (k)
Concentration or density of traffic is the
number of vehicles in a given length of
roadway or a lane, i.e. vehicles/km.

It is also a common parameter used to describe

road performance.

45
 TOPIC 2.2.2

Speed, Flow, Density

Relationships

46
The Interpretation
Flow rate = Speed x Density
or
q = uk …………………………(i)

 uF 
u  uF    k …………..(ii)
 kJ 

 uF  2 ………….(iii)
q  k  uF    k
 kJ 

 kJ  2 ………….(iv)
q  u  kJ   u
 uF  47
 (i) u-k relationship
 uF 
u  uF    k
uF  kJ 
A ____
Stable flow
------- Unstable flow
uC = uF/2 kj = Jammed density
uF = Free flow speed
u (km/h)

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ 48
(ii) q-k relationship  uF  2
q  k  uF    k
maximum  kJ  2  kJ 
q  u  kJ   u
theoretical flow
qC  uF qc= kjuf
4

A x x B
q1
UB
Stable
q (vph)

UA Unstable

k1 k2

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ
49
 (iii) q-u relationship
 kJ  2
q  u  kJ   u
uF  uF 
A
u1

theoretical flow
maximum
x
uC = uF/2
u (km/h)

x
u2
B

q (vph) q1 qC 50
Example 2.2.2.2
Traffic volume during a stable free-flowing condition is 600 veh/h
with an average speed of 75 km/h. Estimate the average speed
of traffic under congested situation for the same volume of traffic
if speed & flow are related. The maximum free-flow speed for the
road section is 90 km/h.

Solution:
First, sketch the parabolic curve for q–u relationship.
(ii) q-u relationship

uF
A
u1
maximum capacity

uC = uF/2
u (km/h)

u2
B

q (vph) q1 qC
51
 TOPIC 2.3
Headway or Spacing

52
Definition
Headway
The time between successive vehicles passing a point.
(s/veh)

1
h=
q
Spacing
The distance between successive vehicles passing a point.

(m/veh)
1
S=
k
53
Headway (h) or Spacing
 Headway and spacing are microscopic
measures of flow as they apply to pairs of
vehicles in the traffic stream.
 These parameters are important in determining the
number of gaps in a traffic stream for vehicles or
pedestrians to cross and for measuring operations at
junctions.

Headway if measured in terms of time, or

Spacing if measured in terms of distance

Reference point 54
Example 2.3.1
What is the average headway of vehicles if the traffic
volume in a lane is 1800 veh/h assuming there is no
m/cycle in the system? What is the average inter-vehicle
spacing if the average vehicle’s speed is 60 km/h?

Answer:

How to compute Spacing? Headway = 2 sec. u = 60 km/h

u = 60 km/h Spacing = ?? meter

Reference point
55
Example 2.2.2.1
Vehicles in a traffic stream moved at an average
headway of 2.2 sec. The average speed is 80 km/h.
Estimate the flow rate & density of that traffic stream.

Solution:

56
 TOPIC 2.4
Traffic Capacity and
LOS Analysis for
Expressway and Two
Lane Rural Highways

57
Traffic Capacity Study
 Traffic capacity is the term used to describe
the ability of the roadway to accommodate
traffic.
 Capacity – Maximum hourly rate of number
of vehicles/persons which has reasonable
expectation of passing a point / uniform
section of a roadway during a given time
under prevailing road and traffic condition.
 Capacity of a freeway is the max sustained
15-minutes rate of flow, in pcph/h/ln in one
direction.
58
Importance of Capacity Analysis
 To estimate maximum amount of traffic
that can be accommodated by a facility
while maintaining prescribed operational
qualities.
 To evaluate existing traffic conditions &
highway systems deficiencies
 To assess effects of proposed changes on
capacity & traffic condition.
 To compare alternative transportation
proposals.
59
Introduction to Expressway Facilities
 An expressway or freeway is defined as a
divided highway with full control of access
and two or more lanes for the exclusive use
of traffic in each direction.
 Provide uninterrupted flow. No signalized or
stop-controlled at-grade intersection, and
direct access to and from adjacent property
is not permitted.
 Opposing directions of flow are continuously
separated by a raised barrier, an at-grade
median, or a continuous raised median.
60
Freeway Capacity Terms
 Freeway Capacity
- Max sustained 15-minutes rate of flow, in
pcph/hr/ln in one direction.

 Free-flow Speed (FFS)

- The mean speed of passengers cars that can be
accommodated under low to moderate flow rates
on a uniform freeway segment under prevailing
roadway and traffic condition

61
Factors Affecting FFS
i) Number of lane
- More number of lanes, more opportunity for
drivers to position themselves to avoid slower moving
vehicle.

62
Factors Affecting FFS (cont..)
ii) Interchange Density
- Closely space interchanges,
such as those in heavily
developed urban areas
operate at lower FFS that
suburban or rural freeways.
- Ideal average interchange
spacing over a reasonably
long section of freeway
(8-10km) is 3km or greater.
Minimum is 1 km.

63
Factors Affecting FFS
iii) Other factor
- Narrow lanes which will force drivers to travel

closer to one another laterally than they would desire.

- The design speed of the primary physical elements

of a freeway.

- If a freeway has significant horizontal or vertical

condition, the analyst is encouraged to determine the
FFS from field study or field observation.
64
LOS
 A term used to classify the varying
conditions of traffic flow that take place on
highway.
 LOS range from the highest level ( a flow
where drivers are able to drive at their
desired speed with freedom to maneuver) to
the lowest level of service.
 A qualitative measure describing operational
conditions within traffic stream and their
perception by motorists/passengers.

65
LOS Classification

(v/c =0.15)

(v/c =0.27)

(v/c =0.43)

(v/c =0.64)

(v/c =1.0)

66
Relationship of LOS with Speed and
v/c Ratio

67
 Checking LOS for
Basic Freeway System

68
Procedure to Determine LOS
1. Determine or calculate FFS from field
measurement or formula;
FFS = BFFS-fLW-fLC-fN-fID

2. Determine Flow Rate;

vp= V
[PHF x N x fHV x fp]

fHV= 1
[1 + PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1)]

69
Procedure to Determine LOS (cont..)

3. Calculate Density;
D = Vp ,
D=density, Vp=flow rate, S=ave. car speed
S
4. Determine LOS;
Table 23-2 (HCM 2000)

70
1. Free Flow Speed (FFS) Adjustment

FFS = BFFS – fLW – fLC – fN - fID

Where

FSS = estimated free-flow speed

fLW = adjustment for lane width (Table 3)
fLC = adjustment for left-shoulder lateral clearance (Table 4)
fN = adjustment for number of lanes (Table 5)
fID = adjustment for interchange density (Table 6)
BFFS = Base free flow speed;
- 70mph or 110km/hr for urban,
- 75mph or 120 km/hr for rural

71
Table 3: Adjustment for Lane Width (flw)

Lane Width (m) Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fLW (km/h)

3.6 0.0
3.5 1.0
3.4 2.1
3.3 3.1
3.2 5.6
3.1 8.1
3.0 10.6

72
Table 4: Adjustment for fLC

Right- Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fLC (km/h)

Shoulder Lanes in One Direction
Lateral
Clearance
(m)
2 3 4 ≥5

≥1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1.5 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2
1.2 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.4
0.9 2.9 1.9 1.0 0.6
0.6 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.8
0.3 4.8 3.2 1.6 1.1
0.0 5.8 3.9 1.9 1.3

73
Table 5: Adjustment for fn

Number of Lanes (One Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fN (km/h)

Direction)
≥5 0.0
4 2.4
3 4.8
2 7.3

*note: for all rural freeway section, fN = 0.0

74
Table 6: Adjustment for fID

Interchanges per Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fID (km/h)

kilometer
 0.3 0.0
0.4 1.1
0.5 2.1
0.6 3.9
0.7 5.0
0.8 6.0
0.9 8.1
1.0 9.2
1.1 10.2
1.2 12.1

75
2. Determine Flow Rate
vp = V
[PHF x N x fHV x fp]

Vp = 15 min passenger car equivalent flow rate

V = hourly peak vehicle volume in one direction
PHF = peak hour factor
N = number of travel lanes in one direction
fp = driver population factor
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor

** Values for the driver population factor, fp, range from 0.85 to
1.0. In general, the value of 1.0 is used to reflect commuter
traffic.
fHV= 1
[1 + PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1)] 76
2.1 Calculate fHV
fHV = 1
[1 + PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1)]

ET, ER = Propotion Truck/Buses & Recreational Vehicle (Table 7 & 8)

PT, PR = proportion Truck/Buses & Recreational Car
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor

  TYPE OF TERRAIN
CATEGORY LEVEL ROLLING MOUNTAINOUS
ET (Trucks and
Buses 1.5 3.0 6.0
Combined)
ER  (RVs) 1.2 2.0 4.0
77
Tutorial 3
Determine the expected LOS for a section of a 4-lane
rural freeway (2 lanes in one direction) with 3.5mlane
& left shoulder lateral clearance of 1.2m.

The section has a 4% gradient of 0.8 mile long. Its to

accommodate 10% heavy truck & buses and 2% recreational
vehicles.

Based on the local studies, an adjustment factor far the driver

population, fp is 0.9 is indicated. The peak hour volume
(PHV) is 2230 vehicles per hour in the peak direction only and
the facility has 1 interchange per mile on average with a peak
hour factor (PHF) of 0.93.
78
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)
Table 7 : Determination of ET

79
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)
Table 8 : Determination of ER

80
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)

EXAMPLE:

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

A six lane freeway has a flow of 3500 vehicles. This flow

consists of 180 trucks per hour, 200 RVs per hour, 350
passenger buses per hour and the remainder of
passenger. Calculate the heavy vehicle adjustment
factor for a ½ mile section of this freeway that has a +4%
grade.

81
2.1 Calculate fHV(cont..)
Solution:

82
2.2 Calculate PHF
PHF – The ratio of total hourly volume to the
maximum rate of flow within 1 hour.
PHF = V
4(v15)
V = Hourly volume
V15 = peak 15-min volume

Example : Assume 100, 150, 320, 50 vehicles are counted during

4 15min intervals. Calculate the PHF
Solution:

83
2.2.1 Calculate Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
DHV – The ratio of total hourly volume to the
peak hour factor
DHV = V
PHF
V = Hourly volume
PHF = peak hour factor

Example; From example of PHF calculation, calculate the DHV

Solution:

84
2. Determine Flow Rate (cont..)
Example

A four-lane highway (two lanes in each direction) has a

2,500-vph peak-hour volume that includes mostly
commuter traffic, 5% trucks and 6% buses. The section
of highway that we are interested in is in rolling terrain. The
peak-hour factor has been determined by earlier studies to
be 0.95. What is the passenger-car equivalent (or service)
flow rate for this section of freeway?

85
2. Determine Flow Rate (cont..)
Solution

86
3. Calculate The Density
Vp
D
S
Vp = Flow rate passenger (pc/hr/ln)
S = Average passenger car speed (km/hr) FFS
D = Density (pc/km/ln)

87
4. Determine the LOS
Table 23-2 (HCM 2000)

88
Exercise (Exam Question: April 2011-12marks)
A traffic volume study has been carried out during non-peak hour
on a regular weekday in an urban expressway with 110km/hr
speed limit. Table Q3 shows the 15-minutes volume count for a
8km section of a four-lane expressway which is on a rolling terrain
with grade of 4%. Determine the peak hour factor (PHF), design
hourly volume (DHV) and Level of Service of the section using the
following data
Lane width = 7m / direction
Lateral Clearance = 1.4 m
Interchange = 2.4 every 3km
Traffic condition = Commuter
traffic

Table Q3

Time (pm) Car Motorcycle Buses Lorries

2.00 – 2.15 149 133 9 5
2.15 – 2.30 95 104 8 10
2.30 – 2.45 85 98 10 3
2.45 – 3.00 97 86 8 8
89
Tutorial 1
Determine the free flow speed of urban freeway section if
BFFS = 70 mi/h. The data are as follows;

Number of lane = 3 (one direction)

Lane width = 3.5m
Lateral clearance = 1.2m (right side)
Interchange density = 0.5/km

90
Tutorial 2
Determine the LOS on a regular weekday on a 0.4
mile section of a six lane freeway with a grade of 2%,
using the following data;

Hourly volume = 3000 veh.hr

PHF = 0.85

Traffic composition:
Trucks = 12%
RVs = 2%
Lane width = 3.5m
Terrain = level
Base free flow speed = 70mi/h
Shoulder width = 1.2m
Interchange spacing = 2km
Driver population adj factor, fp = 1.0 91
Tutorial 3
Determine the expected LOS for a section of a 4-lane
rural freeway (2 lanes in one direction) with 3.5mlane
& left shoulder lateral clearance of 1.2m.

The section has a 4% gradient of 0.8 mile long. Its to

accommodate 10% heavy truck & buses and 2% recreational
vehicles.

Based on the local studies, an adjustment factor far the driver

population, fp is 0.9 is indicated. The peak hour volume
(PHV) is 2230 vehicles per hour in the peak direction only and
the facility has 1 interchange per mile on average with a peak
hour factor (PHF) of 0.93.
92
 TOPIC 2.5
Traffic Control Device

93
Introduction
 Purpose is to convey message to road users.
 Objective: To establish a user-friendly street and
road system that is adequately and clearly
understood by all users thereof.
 May either contain instructions which the road user is
required to obey; warning of hazards which may not be
evident; or information about routes, destinations and
points of interest or leisure.
 Road traffic control devices
- Road Marking
- Road Sign
- Traffic Island
- Traffic signal
94
Road Marking
 Any kind of device or material that is used on a
road surface in order to convey official information.
 Are made of lines, pattern, words, symbols or reflector
on the pavement, kerb, side of island or on fixed
objects near the roadway.
 Purpose is to control or regulate the traffic.
 Markings are made using paints (light reflecting
paints) in contrast with color and brightness of the
pavement or background.

95
Road Marking (cont..)
Types of markings
 Pavement marking
- Center lines
- Lane line
- No passing zone
- Turn marking
- Stop lines
 Kerb marking
- Parking regulation

96
Road Sign
 Types Road Traffic Sign
i. Regulatory Signs (enforced by law)
- Mandatory-speed limit
- Prohibitory-no entry
ii. Warning Signs
Iii. Informatory Signs

 Characteristics of Road Traffic Sign

- Shape
- Colour
- Symbol/lettering
97
Road Sign (cont..)
 Types Road Traffic Sign
i. Regulatory Signs (enforced by law)
- Mandatory-speed limit
- Prohibitory-no entry
ii. Warning Signs
iii. Informatory Signs

 Characteristics of Road Traffic Sign

- Shape
- Colour
- Symbol/lettering
98
99
Traffic Island
 A median strip, a strip in the middle of a road. It can also
be a narrow strip between roads that intersect at an
acute angle.
 Types of traffic island based on function
i. Divisional island
eg. Median along highways
ii. Channelizing island
- Used to guide traffic into proper channels through
the intersection area
~ Reduce conflicts
~ Establish desired angles of crossing and diverging
~ Serve as convenient locations for other traffic control
devices
~ Refuge island for pedestrians
~ Useful when the direction of flow is to changed 100
101
Traffic Signal System
 A signaling device positioned at a road intersection,
pedestrian crossing, or other location.
 Its purpose is to indicate, using a series of colors
(Red - Amber - Green), the correct moment to stop, drive,
ride or walk, using a universal color code (and a precise
sequence, for those who are color blind.
 Type of traffic signal
i. Fixed time controlled traffic signal system:..
ii. Vehicle actuated traffic signal system:..
iii. Linked/coordinated traffic signal system;
- Simultaneous system
- Single alternate system
- Double alternate system
- Flexible system
iv. Area traffic signal system:.. 102
 TOPIC 2.6
Intersection Control
Design - Signalized
and Unsignalized

103
Intersection Control
Design – Signalized
(Webster Method)

104
Traffic Signal Control System

DEFINITION:
Traffic signal includes all mechanical – or
electrical – controlled devices used to
control, direct, or warn drivers or pedestrians.

105
Objective and Function
 To provide right–of–way to vehicles on each
approach to increase traffic handling performance.
 To provide efficient traffic movement and safety.
 To reduce traffic conflict points, traffic delay, etc.

106
Objective and Function (cont..)
 Conflict points at a junction are the points at which there
are possibilities of two or more vehicles will collide if
vehicles from opposing directions are allowed to move
simultaneously.

107
Advantage of Traffic Signal
 Provide for the progressive flow of a platoon of
traffic along a given route.
 Interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to allow
pedestrians and cross-street traffic to cross or
to enter the main street flow.
 Increase the traffic-handling ability of a junction.
 Reduce number of conflict point, i.e., to reduce
frequency of occurrence of certain types of accidents.

108
Disadvantage of Traffic Signal
The following results from improper design or
unwarranted signal installations may occur:

 Excessive delay for motorists and pedestrians,

particularly during off–peak periods.
 Increased accident frequency (i.e., rear-end-
collisions).
 Disregard of signal indications.

109
General Criteria for Selecting The Type of Junction

Total 2–way traffic on major road and highest volume on

Type of minor road (veh/h)
junction

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Stop–
controlled

Traffic
Signal

Interchange

MINI SMALL CONVENTIONAL

Roundabout
110
Warrant Analysis For The Installation Of A
Traffic Signal System
 Warrant #1 – Vehicle Operations

 Warrant #2 – Pedestrian Safety, and

 Warrant #3 – Accidents Record.

Installation of a traffic signal is warranted if one or more

requirements specified in any of the warrants are
satisfied.

111
Warrant #1 – Vehicular Operation
(a) Total Volume (PCU): Traffic volume for each of any 8

hour of an average day meets the minimum

requirements in Table 1
Number of Lanes on each Minimum on Minimum on
approach Major Road (1) Minor Road (2)
Major Road Minor Road Urban Rural Urban Rural

1 1 500 350 150 105

2 or more 1 600 420 150 105

2 or more 2 or more 600 420 200 140

1 2 or more 500 350 200 140

(1) Total volume of both approaches

(2) Higher volume approach only 112
Warrant #1 – Vehicular Operation (cont.._
(b) Peak Hour Volume
Highest volume on one of the approaches (veh/h)

700
Number of traffic lanes per approach road:
2 or more lanes on all approaches
600
2 or more lanes on one road, one on the other.
1 lane on all approaches.
500
Minor road -

400

300

200

100

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Major road - Total on both approaches (veh/h)

b (i) Urban or Low Speed Roads 113

 Warrant #1 – Vehicular Operation (cont..)
500
Number of traffic lanes per approach road:
Highest volume any approach (veh/h)

2 or more lanes on all approaches

400 2 or more lanes on one road, one on the other.
1 lane on all approaches.
Minor road -

300

200

100

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Major road - total of both approaches (veh/h)

b (ii) Rural or High Speed Roads 114

Warrant #1 – Vehicular Operation
(c) Progressive Movements
Applies in situation where it is desirable to install
a signal to maintain a proper grouping or
platooning of vehicles and regulate group speed
even though the junction does not satisfy other
warrants for signalisation.

115
Warrant #2 – Pedestrian Safety
Minimum traffic volume for each of any 8 hours of an
average day exists:

(a) Total traffic on major road ≥ 600 veh/h or where there is

a raised median island 1.2 m or more in width, 1,000
or more veh/h, and

(b) 150 or more pedestrian/h crossing the road.

116
Warrant #3 – Accident Record
The requirements for signalisation are satisfied when
(based on at least a period of three years):
 There exist a record of five of more accidents in a year.
Accidents should be of types susceptible to correction by traffic
signal control.
 There exist a volume of vehicular and pedestrian traffic not less
than 80% of the requirements specified in warrants 1 and 2.
 The signal installation will not seriously disrupt progressive

traffic flow.
 Other methods found not effective to reduce accidents.
Note:
Traffic signal installed for this warrant should be semi vehicle-actuated installed
at a junction within a coordinated system, or
Fully vehicle-actuated if installed at an isolated junction. 117
Terminologies and
Definitions

118
1. Signal Aspect or Indications

RED :  STOP (DON’T GO)

AMBER :  (i) Drivers approaching the stop-line
must slow down and ready to stop
as the right-of-way is about to end, and
(ii) Drivers who have already crossed
the stop-line must proceed and clear the
junction quickly.

GREEN :  Drivers have the right-of-way

GREEN : Proceed to follow the indicated direction
ARROW

119
2. Cycle Time, Co

A period for a complete

sequence of signal indications
(aspects), i.e., green followed
with amber, and followed with
red period.
0 sec t1 t2 t = CO

A cycle time, CO

120
3. Traffic (Signal) Phases

The portion of a signal cycle time allocated

to any single combination of one or more
traffic movements simultaneously receiving
the right-of-way during one or more
intervals.
Phase Sequence:
A predetermined order in which the phases
of a cycle occur.

121
3. Traffic (Signal) Phases (cont..)
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

 
          
                                                         
  
                                                                 
      
                                                           

Timing Diagram: I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t 6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

122
 4. All Red Period, R
The part or parts of the signal cycle time during which
the signal indications do not change. This short period
of time is to ensure all vehicles/pedestrians have
cleared the junction before the next traffic phase is given
right-of-way
Timing Diagram:
I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

One cycle time, CO 123

 5. Intergreen Period
A period of time from end of the green indication
of a phase to the beginning of green
indication for the next phase.
I=a+R
Timing Diagram:
I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

One cycle time, CO

124
Elements To Consider
In The Design Of A
Traffic Signal Control
System

125
1. Selection of Traffic Phases
A minimum number of phases for any junction is = 2
But, it is important to consider the need to provide
separate phases for right–turning vehicles based on the
following criteria:

• Traffic volumes
• Traffic delays
• Accident records
• Geometry

126
General Guideline For Provision Of Separate
Right–turning Phases:
(a) Traffic Volume
i. Product of right–turning traffic volume and through volume
of the conflicting direction ≥ 50,000; or
ii. Total right –turning traffic ≥ 100 veh/h during peak hour; or
iii. Number of right–turning vehicles left in queue ≥ 2 veh/cycle at
the end of green period.

(b) Traffic Delay

i. Average delay to the right–turning vehicles ≥ 35 sec/veh.

(c) Accidents involving right–turning vehicles

i. 4 or more accidents/year or 6 or more accidents for a period of
2 years on one particular approach; or
ii. 6 or more accidents/year or 10 or more accidents for a period of
2 years on both opposing approaches. 127
2. Saturation Flow, S
The maximum flow of vehicles passing the stopline
during green period.
Variation of vehicle flow rate passing the
stopline during a green period

Saturation flow, S
Flow rate, veh/sec

l sec. Lost time due to

late start, l sec. Lost time due to
early stop
Effective green period

128

0 sec. time
 QN = Observed or
expected traffic
flow in the given
movements (pcu/h)

SN = Saturation flow for

the given movement
(pcu/hr)

W = Width of the lane for

the movement (m)

IF W ≥ 5.5 METER THEN: S = 525*W PCU/H

IF W < 5.5 METER THEN: USED TABLE BELOW FOR S

W (meter) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

S (pcu/h) 1845 1885 1965 2210 2560 129
The actual saturation flow (S) of a particular movement
is governed by several factors:
• Percentage of right–turning traffic ( FR )

• Percentage of left–turning traffic ( FL )

• Turning radius ( FT )
• Gradient ( FG )

Therefore, S must be corrected to take account of the effects:

(i) Saturation flow for mixed movements lane:
S’ = S x FR x FL x FG pcu/h
(ii) Saturation flow for exclusive turning lane:
S’ = S x FT x FG pcu/h
FR, FL, FT, and FG can be obtained from the
130
respective
3. Optimum Cycle Time, Co
1.5L + 5
CO = _____________ SECONDS

1–Y
Where:
n n n
L   I  a    l and Y   yi
i 1 i 1 i 1

L = Total lost time per cycle in seconds

I = Intergreen period in seconds
A = Amber period in seconds
L = Lost time due to starting delay, usually 2s
Yi = Demand/Saturation Flow Ratio = qi / si
131
4. Timing Setting
GN = gN + l + R

KN = gN + ln – an I

Phase N a R

l gN = yN (CO – L)/Y

Cycle time, CO

gN = Effective green period for phase N

GN = Actual green period for phase N
KN = Controller setting green period or the displayed green period
for phase N
132

l = Lost time due starting delay, usually 2s.

Example
Question:
Design a traffic signal system for an intersection in
which the traffic flow information is shown in the table
below and the turning action can be neglected. Show
the phase diagram and phase timeline.
Phase 1 Phase 2
From North South East West
To All All All All
Flow, q (pcu/hr) 1075 1338 587 1187
Saturated flow, s (pcu/hr) 3840 5760 2880 3200

Intergreen Period, I1=5s , I2=6s

Lost time, l = 2s
All Red, R1 = 2s , R2=3s
Amber, a = 3s 133
Example (cont..)
Solution:
Choose 2 phase diagram as the turning action can be
neglected.
Phase 1 Phase 2
From North South East West
To All All All All
Flow, q (pcu/hr) 1075 1338 587 1187
Saturated flow, s (pcu/hr) 3840 5760 2880 3200
Y= q/s 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.36
Ymax 0.28 0.36

134
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):

135
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):

136
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):
Timing Diagram

Phase 1 Green (k1) a R1 Red k1

Phase 2 Red Green k 2 a R2 Red

21s 24s 26s 54s 57s 60s

One cycle time, Co = 60s

Phase Diagram

137
Examples (3 phase)
Question:
Table below show the traffic a geometric data of a 3
arm junction. Design a fixed time traffic control
system which optimized flow and give minimum
delay.
Approach North South East
Width
Road Width 6.2 m 6.2 m 5.5 m

Flow(pcu/hr) 350 420 315

PHF 0.9 0.9 0.9

Provide a neat sketch of the geometrical layout and

phasing of the dispersion traffic. Take saturation
flow=525 pcu/hr
138
Examples - 3 phase (cont..)
Solution:
North South East

flow 350 420 315

(flow / PHF=0.9) 389 467 350

Phase (I) (II) (III)

Flow (q) 389 467 350
Saturation flow 3255 3255 2888
(S)=525*W
Yn=q/s 0.12 0.14 0.12
Ymax 0.12+0.14+0.12= 0.38

139
Examples - 3 phase (cont..)
Solution:

140
Examples - 3 phase (cont..)
Solution:

141
Examples - 3 phase (cont..)
Solution:

142