Pavement Structure Design

1. Introduction
 Introduction
 Pavement design is a process of selection of appropriate pavement and
surfacing materials to ensure that the pavement performs adequately and
requires minimal maintenance under the anticipated traffic loading for the
design period adopted. This selection process involves adoption of material
types, thicknesses and configurations of the pavement layers to meet the
design and performance objectives.
 Introduction

 The basic idea in building a pavement for all-weather use by vehicles is to

prepare a suitable subgrade, provide necessary drainage and construct a
pavement that will:
 Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads;
 Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal
accumulation of moisture, and
 Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as well
as reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by weather.

 The subgrade ultimately carries all traffic loads. Therefore, the structural
function of a pavement is to support a wheel load on the pavement surface,
and transfer and spread that load to the subgrade without exceeding either the
strength of the subgrade or the internal strength of the pavement itself.
Introduction

Truck

Asphalt Concrete Thickness ?

Base Course Thickness ?

?

Sub-base Course Thickness ?

• Pavement Design Life = Selected

• Structural/Functional Performance = Desired
• Design Traffic = Predicted
 Empirical Approach

 An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experiments or

experience.
 Generally, it requires a number of observations to be made in order to ascertain
the relationships between input variables and outcomes.
2.Flexible Pavement Design
 Flexible Pavement Design Procedures

 There are several accepted design procedures

 Asphalt Institute method

 Shell procedure
 Mechanistic
 Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) Pavement Design Guide
 1993 AASHTO Design Procedure …..
 Selection is usually based on a highway agency’s experience

8
 Empirical Approach

 An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experiments or

experience.
 Generally, it requires a number of observations to be made in order to ascertain
the relationships between input variables and outcomes.
 1993 AASHTO Design Procedure

 Traditional and widely accepted design procedure

 First published in 1972 by American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
 1986
 1993 (revised section for overlay designs)
 Test data, used for procedure development, were collected at the AASHO
Road Test in Illinois from 1958 to 1960

10
 1993 AASHTO Design Procedure

 Empirical Procedure developed through statistical analysis of the

observed performance of AASHTO Road Test Sections.
 234 “Test Sections” (160 feet long), each incorporating a different
combination of thicknesses of Asphalt Concrete, Base Course and
Subbase Course were constructed and trafficked to investigate the
effect of pavement layer thickness on pavement performance.
 AASHO ROAD TEST CONDITIONS

 Environment
 Climate -4 to 24oC
 Average Annual Precipitation 34 Inches (864 mm)
 Average Frost Penetration Depth 28 Inches
• Soil
• Classification A-6/A-7-6 (Silty-Clayey)
• Drainage Poorly Drained
• Strength 2-4 % CBR (Poor)
• Pavement Layer Materials
• Asphalt Concrete AC a1 = 0.44
• Base Course Crushed Stone a2 = 0.14
• Subbase Course Sandy Gravel a3 = 0.11
 Serviceability Concept

 Prior to the AASHO Road Test, there was no real consensus on the
definition of pavement failure
 Engineer: Failure occured whenever cracking, rutting, or other surface
distresses became visible

 Public: Failure is associated with poor ride quality

14
 Serviceability Concept

 AASHO Road Test engineers were faced with the task of combining the
two failure definitions so that a single design procedure could be used to
satisfy both critics.
 The Pavement Serviceability-Performance Concept was developed by
Carey and Irick [1962] to handle the question of pavement failure.

Present
Serviceability
Index (PSI)

Analysis
Period

Time 15
 Serviceability Concept

 PSI is measured by a panel of raters who drive over the pavement section
and rate the pavement performance on a scale of 1 to 5

Smoothest

Traffic and environmental damage

PSI

Terminal
Analysis serviceability
Period index (TSI)

Time or Traffic
16
 PSI and TSI

 PSI

 4.2 to 4.5 for new pavements

 TSI

 2.5 or 3.0 for highway facilities

 Interstate highways

 Principal arterials

 2.0 for local roads

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 Flexible-Pavement Design Equation

  PSI 
log 10  
log W 18   Z  S o  9 . 36  log SN  1   0 . 20   2 .7   2 . 32  log M R   8 . 07
10 R 10 10
1094
0 . 40 
SN  1
5 . 19

 W18 = 80.1-kN (18-kip)–equivalent single-axle load

 ZR = reliability (z-statistic from the standard normal curve)

 So = overall standard deviation of traffic

 SN = structural number
 PSI = loss in serviceability (PSI new – TSI)

 MR = soil resilient modulus of the subgrade in lb/in2

18
 Normal Distribution (Bell-Shaped Curve)

50% of data 50% of data

0.13% 2.14% 34.13 34.13 2.14% 0.13%

13.59 % % 13.59
% %
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Z

Average 19
 ZR

 ZR = probability that serviceability will be maintained at adequate levels

from a user’s point of view throughout the design life of the facility.

In Excel:
ZR = NORMSINV(1 – R/100)

0.13% 2.14% 34.13% 34.13% 2.14% 0.13%

13.59% 13.59%
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Z
20
 Reliability / ZR

 Highways

 Interstates and major arterials

 Are costly to reconstruct because of resulting traffic delay and

disruption
require a high reliability level (R = 90%)

 Local roads (R as low as 50%)

Local roads Interstates

and major
arterials
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Recommended Reliability Level
Reliability and ΔPSI Values

Proposed for use in Lebanon

Traffic
Road class Reliability PSI
(ESALSx106

International 5 - 20 95% 90%* 1.5

Primary 5 - 20 90% 85%* 2.0

Secondary 0.5 - 10 85% 50%* 2.2

Local 0.5 - 5 50% 2.5

* Depends on traffic
 Overall Standard Deviation S0

 S0 takes into account

 Designers’ inability to accurately estimate the variation in ESAL

 Statistical error in the equations resulting from variability in
 materials and

 construction practices

 Typical S0 values = 0.30 to 0.50

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 Structural Number SN

 SN represents the overall structural requirement needed to sustain the

design’s traffic loadings.

The structural number is

discussed further later
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 Amount of Serviceability Loss PSI

 PSI is the amount of serviceability loss over the life of the pavement
 Engineer must decide on the final PSI level (TSI)
 Pavement with heavy traffic loads, such as an interstate highway

 PSI = 1.2 (an initial PSI of 4.2 and a TSI of 3.0)

4.2
PSI = 4.2 – 3.0 = 1.2
PSI

Analysis 3.0
Period

Time

 Low-volume roads can be allowed to deteriorate further, with PSI of 2.7 or

26
 Flexible-Pavement Design Chart

Example:

Solution:
The probabilities (R in %) are SN = 5.0
used directly instead of ZR 27
 Structural Number SN

 SN is determined using the equation or nomograph for given

 axle loadings,

 reliability, There are many pavement

material combinations and
 overall standard deviation, thicknesses that will
provide satisfactory
 change in PSI, and pavement service life
 soil resilient modulus

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 Structural Number SN

 The following equation can be used to relate individual material types and
thicknesses to structural number
SN  a 1 D 1  a 2 D 2 m 2  a 3 D 3 m 3 
 Mutiply by 0.0394 for metric

Surfacing (AC) a1 D1
 ai = strength coefficients
Base course a ,m D2
2 2  mi = drainage coefficients

Sub-base a 3 , m3 D3  Di = layer thicknesses in mm

Subgrade (not included in SN)

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Structural-Layer Coefficients (a)

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 Surfacing Coefficients

 The stiffness of asphalt depends on temperature. The strength coefficient

determined in the AASHO road test for Chicago was 0.44.
 For Lebanon, proposed values are:

Altitude (m) a1

0-600 0.38

600 – 1200 0.40

>1200 0.44
Base Course and Sub-base Coefficients

0.16

Granular base course

0.14
Granular sub-base
Layer coefficient

0.12

0.10

0.08
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
California Bearing Ratio %
 Drainage Coefficients (M)

 Drainage coefficients are used to take into account a material’s drainage

characteristics.
 M = 1.0 for a sandy material (Good drainage characteristics)

 A soil such as clay does not drain very well and, consequently, will have
a lower drainage coefficient (less than 1.0) than a sandy material

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Drainage Coefficient
 Layer Thicknesses Guidelines

 Many combinations of structural-layer coefficients and thicknesses solve Eq.

of log10 W18  Some guidelines are used to narrow the number of solutions

Layer Thickness Range

Wearing 51 to 102 mm (2 to 4 in)

Subbases and bases 102 to 254 mm (4 to 10 in)

Knowing which of the materials is the most costly per inch of depth will
assist in the determination of an initial layer thickness.

35
AASHTO Recommended Minimum Thickness
 Standard Design Charts
(To compare with submitted designs)

1000
Asphaltic Concrete
Subgrade CBR 15%
Crushed stone base course
800
International
Primary
Thickness (mm)

180
600
160
Secondary 140
140 120
Local 100 120
400 120
100
100 80
80
80
80 525
80 450
80 425
200 80 375 375 400 400
300 300 325 325
290
220 250
170 200
150

0
0.5 1 2 5 10 0.5 1 2 5 10 5 10 20 5 10 20 50

Traffic (millions of ESALs)

 Example – Flexible Pavement Design:
Structural Number Determination
 A pavement is to be designed to last 10 years. The initial PSI is 4.2 and the TSI (the final PSI) is
determined to be 2.5. The subgrade has a soil resilient modulus of 103,430 kPa (15,000 psi).
Reliability is 95% with an overall standard deviation of 0.4. For design, the number of vehicles
per day (vpd) and axle weights are shown below:

30,000 vpd -----

1,000 vpd ---------------

350 vpd ------

 M2 and M3 are equal to 1.0 for the materials in the pavement structure. Four inches of hot-mix
asphalt (HMA) is to be used as the wearing surface and 10 inches of crushed stone as the
subbase. Determine the thickness required for the base if soil cement is the material to be used.

38
Axle-Load Equivalency Factors

39
Axle-Load Equivalency Factors

40
Axle-Load Equivalency Factors

41
 Example 2 – Flexible Pavement Design:
Reliability Assessment

 A flexible pavement is constructed with 102 mm (4 inches) of hot-mix

asphalt (HMA) wearing surface, 203 mm (8 inches) of emulsion/aggregate-
bituminous base, and 203 mm (8 inches) of crushed stone subbase. The
subgrade has a soil resilient modulus of 68,950 kPa (10,000 psi), and M2 and

M3 are equal to 1.0 for the materials in the pavement structure. The overall
standard deviation is 0.5, the initial PSI is 4.5, and the TSI is 2.5. The daily
traffic has 1080 89.0-kN (20-kip) single axles, 400 106.8-kN (24-kip) single
axles, and 680 177.9-kN (40-kip) tandem axles. How many years would you
estimate this pavement would last (how long before its PSI drops below a
TSI of 2.5) if you wanted to be 90% confident that your estimate was not too
high, and if you wanted to be 99% confident that your estimate was not too
high? 42
3. Rigid Pavement Design
 Rigid Pavement

 Rigid highway pavements are normally constructed of Portland cement

concrete and may or may not have a base course between the subgrade
and the concrete surface.
 When a base course is used in rigid pavement construction, it is usually
referred to as a subbase course.
 It is common, however, for only the concrete surface to be referred to as
the rigid pavement, even where there is a base course.
 Properly designed and constructed rigid pavements have long service lives
and usually are less expensive to maintain than flexible pavements.
 Thickness of highway concrete pavements normally ranges from 6-13
inches.
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 Design Principles

 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP)

 control cracking so that it occurs at designated locations (joints)

 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP)

 confine uncontrolled cracking to acceptable spacing, and widths, so slab

performs as if no cracks exist.
 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP)

 extend joint spacing to reduce number of joints, and provide light

reinforcement to hold intermediate crack.

45
 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP)

 Concrete volume changes are accommodated by transverse contraction

joints-Joints tell the concrete where to crack

46
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP)

47
 Joints

 A proper jointing system for concrete pavements ensures that the structural
capacity and riding quality of the pavement is maintained at the highest
level at the lowest annual cost.
 A proper jointing system will:

 control cracking.
 divide the pavement into practical construction increments.
 accommodate slab movements.
 provide load transfer.
 Cracking results from stresses caused by concrete drying shrinkage,
temperature and moisture differentials, and applied traffic loadings.
 If these stresses are not relieved, uncontrolled cracking will occur.
48
 Jointing Considerations

 The need for a jointing system in concrete pavements results from the desire
to control the location and geometry of transverse and longitudinal
cracking.
 In determining a proper jointing system, the designer must consider climate
and environmental conditions, slab thickness, load transfer, shoulder/curb
and gutter construction, and traffic.
 Proper and timely construction practices, in addition to proper design, are
key in obtaining a properly performing jointing system for concrete
pavements. Late or inadequate joint formation may cause cracks to develop
at locations other than those intended.

49
 Jointing for Crack Control

 Proper jointing is based on controlling cracks that occur from the natural
actions of the concrete pavement. Joints are placed in the pavement to
control the crack location and pattern.
 Spacing of the initial cracks varies from about 12.0 to 45.0 m depending on
concrete properties and climatic conditions during and after placement.

50
 Load Transfer

 For jointed concrete pavements to perform adequately, traffic loadings

must be transferred effectively from one side of the joint to the other. This
is called load transfer.
 Adequate load transfer results in lower deflections, which reduces
faulting and corner breaks, thereby increasing pavement life. Load
transfer across joints is developed either by aggregate interlock or dowel
bars.

51
 Load Transfer

 Aggregate interlock is the interlocking action between aggregate particles at

the face of the joint. It relies on the shear interaction between aggregate
particles at the irregular crack faces that form below the saw cut. This form
of load transfer has been found to be most effective on roadways with short
spacings and low truck volumes.

52
 Reinforcing Steel

 Steel reinforcing may be used in concrete pavements to reduce the amount

of cracking that occurs, as a load transfer mechanism at joints, or as a
means of tying two slabs together. Steel reinforcement used to control
cracking is usually referred to as temperature steel, whereas steel rods used as
load transfer mechanisms are known as dowel bars, and those used to connect two
slabs together are known as tie bars.

53
 Temperature Steel

 Temperature steel is provided in the form of a bar mat or wire mesh

consisting of longitudinal and transverse steel wires welded at regular
intervals. The mesh usually is placed about 3 in. below the slab surface.
 The cross-sectional area of the steel provided per foot width of the slab
depends on the size and spacing of the steel wires forming the mesh.
 The amount of steel required depends on the length of the pavement
between expansion joints, the maximum stress desired in the concrete
pavement, the thickness of the pavement, and the moduli of elasticity of
the concrete and steel.

54
 Temperature Steel

 General guidelines for the minimum cross-sectional area of the

temperature steel:
 Cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel should be at least equal to 0.1
percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab.
 Longitudinal wires should not be less than No. 2 gauge, spaced at a
maximum distance of 6 in.
 Transverse wires should not be less than No. 4 gauge, spaced at a
maximum distance of 12 in.
 Temperature steel does not prevent cracking of the slab, but it does control
the crack widths because the steel acts as a tie holding the edges of the
cracks together.
55
 Dowel Bars

 Dowel bars are used mainly as load-transfer mechanisms across joints. They
provide flexural, shearing, and bearing resistance.
 The dowel bars must be of a much larger diameter than the wires used in
temperature steel. Size selection is based mainly on experience.
 Diameters of 1 to 1 1/ 2 in. and lengths of 2 to 3 ft have been used, with the
bars usually spaced at 1 ft centers across the width of the slab.
 At least one end of the bar should be smooth and lubricated to facilitate free
expansion.

56
 Tie Bars

 Tie bars are used to tie two sections of the pavement together, and therefore
they should be either deformed bars or should contain hooks to facilitate the
bonding of the two sections of the concrete pavement with the bar. These
bars are usually much smaller in diameter than the dowel bars and are
spaced at larger centers.
 Typical diameter and spacing for these bars are 3 / 4 in. and 3 ft,
respectively.

57
 Traditional AASHTO
Rigid-Pavement Design Procedure
 Design procedure for rigid pavements is similar to the procedure for flexible
pavements
 Instead of measuring SN, the thickness of the PCC slab is the measure of
strength

58
Rigid-Pavement Design Equation

[Eq. 4.4]

59
 W18

 W18 = 80.1-kN (18-kip)–equivalent single-axle load

 Same concept as discussed for the flexible-pavement design procedure

 LEF is a function of slab thickness instead of SN

60
Single Axles LEF (TSI = 2.5) – Rigid Pavement

61
Tandem Axles LEF (TSI = 2.5) – Rigid Pavement

Table 4.7 provides LEF up to 90 kips 62

Triple Axles LEF (TSI = 2.5) – Rigid Pavement

Table 4.8 provides LEF up to 90 kips 63

 Other Parameters

 ZR, S0, TSI and DPSI: Same as in flexible-pavement design

64
 Concrete Modulus of Rupture S′c

 S′c is a measure of the tensile strength of the concrete

 It is the extreme fiber stress under breaking load of a beam

 It is determined by loading a beam specimen, at the third points, to failure

 ASTM C78 or AASHTO T 97

 28-day strength
 Typical values are 3450 to 8270 kPa (500 to 1200 psi)

PL
MR  2
bd
d = 6” = b

L = 18”
65
 Drainage Coefficient Cd

 Cd accounts for the drainage characteristics of the subgrade.

 A value of 1.0 represents a material with good drainage characteristics

(such as a sandy material)

 Soils with less-than-ideal drainage characteristics will have Cd less than

1.0

66
 Load Transfer Coefficient J

 J accounts for the ability of pavement to transfer a load from one PCC slab
to another across the slab joints.
 Pavements with dowel bars at the joints are typically designed with a J
value of 3.2

67
 Lane Distribution Factor (Flexible & Rigid)

 When there are multiple lanes of a highway in one direction

[Eq. 4.5]

 W18 = 80.1-kN (18-kip)–equivalent single-axle load (ESAL)

 PDL = proportion of directional W18 assumed to be in the design lane

68
Design Chart – Segment 1

69
 Design Chart – Segment 2

Example:

70
 Example 4.3 – Rigid Pavement Design:
Slab Thickness Determination
 A rigid pavement is to be designed to provide a service life of 20 years and has an initial PSI of
4.4 and a TSI of 2.5. The modulus of subgrade reaction is determined to be 0.0813 N/mm 3 (300
lb/in3). For design, the number of vehicles per day (vpd) and axle weights are shown below:

20,000 vpd -------

200 vpd -------

410 vpd ------

 Reliability is 95%, the overall standard deviation is 0.45, the concrete’s modulus of elasticity is
31.03 GPa (4.5 million lb/in2), the concrete’s modulus of rupture is 6210 kPa (900 psi), the load
transfer coefficient is 3.2, and the drainage coefficient is 1.0. Determine the required slab
thickness.

71
 Example 4.4 – Rigid Pavement Design with Traffic
Distribution by Lane

 In 1996, a rigid pavement on a northbound section of interstate highway was

designed with a 304.8-mm (12-inch) PCC slab, an Ec of 41.37 GPa (6 × 10 6 lb/in2),
a concrete modulus of rupture of 5,520 kPa (800 lb/in2), a load transfer
coefficient of 3.0, an initial PSI of 4.5, and a terminal serviceability index of 2.5.
The overall standard deviation was 0.45, the modulus of subgrade reaction was
0.05149 N/mm3 (190 lb/in3), and a reliability of 95% was used along with a
drainage coefficient of 1.0. The pavement was designed for a 20-year life, and
traffic was assumed to be composed entirely of tractor semi-trailer trucks with
one 71.2-kN (16-kip) single axle, one 88.9-kN (20-kip) single axle, and one 155.7-
kN (35-kip) tandem axle (the effect of all other vehicles was ignored). The
interstate has four northbound lanes and was conservatively designed. How
many tractor semi-trailer trucks, per day, were assumed to be traveling in the
northbound direction? 72
Solve Examples 4.5 and 4.6

73
8. Mechanistic Pavement Design
 Mechanistic Apporach

 Mechanics is the science of motion and the action of forces on bodies. Thus, a

mechanistic approach seeks to explain phenomena only by reference to physical
causes.

 In pavement design, the phenomena are the stresses, strains and deflections
within a pavement structure, and the physical causes are the loads and material
properties of the pavement structure.
 Mechanistic Design

 A method that involve numerical capability to calculate the stress, strain, or

deflection in a multi-layered system, such as a pavement, when subjected to
external loads, or the effects of temperature or moisture.
 The following two strains are critical to pavement performance;

 Vertical strain εz on top of the sub-grade

 Horizontal strain (tensile strain) εt at the bottom of the lowest bound

pavement course.
 For this purpose the CIRCLY 5 and KENLAYER software will be used.
Typical Stress Distribution in Flexible Pavement.

Vertical stress

Foundation stress
PAVEMENT RESPONSES

 Load related responses:

1) Vertical ( compressive)stresses and strains
2) Shear stresses and strain
3) Radial ( compressive or tensile) stresses and strain
 Temperature induced responses:
1) Shrinkage stresses and strains ( temp: cycling)
2) Low temperature cracking
3) Thermal cracking
PAVEMENT RESPONSES

Critical responses:
1) horizontal tensile stress/strain at the bottom of bound
layers
2) Vertical compressive stress/strain at the top of sub-
 Calculating
grade responses:
1) Using equations
2) Graphical solutions
3) Elastic layer computer programs
i) EVERStress ii) ELSYM5
iii) KENLAYER
 Pavement Performance Prediction Models

 Performance prediction models are also called distress models or

transfer functions
 Models relate structural responses to pavement distress

1) Fatigue cracking Model

2) Rutting Model
 Pavement Performance Prediction Models

Fatigue cracking Model

 Nf = f1( εt ) –f2 ( Es)-f3 (General form)

 Nf = 0.0796( εt ) –3.291 ( Es)-0.854 (A. Inst)

 Nf = 0.0685( εt ) –5.671 ( Es)-2.363 (Shell)

 Nf = 1.66x 10-10 ( εt ) –4.32 (TRRL)

 Nf = 5.0 x 10-6 ( εt ) –3.0 (IDOT

Pavement Performance Prediction Models

 Rutting Model(subgrade strain model)

Nf = f4( εv ) –f5 (General form)

Org f4 f5 Allowable Rut
Depth mm
Asp Inst 1.365 x 10-6 4.44 13
7
Shell 1.94 x 10-7 4.00 13
TRRL 6.18 x 10-8 3.95 10
 References

 Mannering, Fred L.; Washburn, Scott S.; Principles of Highway

Engineering and Traffic Analysis, 5th Edition SI Version; ISBN-13:
9781118471395 – Chapter 4.
 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, ISBN 1560510552,
Washington, DC, 1993.

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