Introduction: Definition of Research

• Research is a systematic investigation(study ,examination) of

phenomena which includes
• collection,
• analysis, and
• Interpretation & presentation, of facts that links an individual’s
speculation with reality.

• Research is a systematic study of trend or event which involves

careful
• collection,
• presentation,
• analysis, and
• interpretations of data or facts that relates man’s thinking with
reality.
 Definition…Cont’d
• Research is a systematic (methodical ,orderly,
regular ,organized) ,and refined /sophisticated
technique of
• thinking,
• employing specialized tools,
• instruments and
• processes in order to obtain a more adequate
solution to the problem than would be possible?
• Research is searching for a clarifying
explanation of an observed phenomenon or
finding a solution to an existing problem in the
workplace or environment. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
• What are the goals of scientific
research?
• The purpose of research is to discover
answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out
the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet.
• Though each research study has its
own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groups:
 Generally Four main Goals:
• description,
• prediction,
• understanding/explaining
• Control /application
Motivations to conduct research
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing
some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.
• However, this is not an exhaustive list of
factors motivating people to undertake
research studies.
 Characteristics of Research

1. Research begins with the query/question

that bothers the researchers

Ideal situation (what ought to be?) ----------------

GAP

Current Situation (what is?) ------------------------

 Characteristics…Cont’d
2. Research needs identification of a problem in clear,
unambiguous terms
• It is not confusing.
• It is definite/clear and certain.
• Show what the research is attempting to
settle/resolve.
• The research problem helps in building up
predictions of the outcome of the study called
hypothesis (tentative professional guesses).
 Characteristics…Cont’d

3. Research must be planned

• Research is systematic and therefore is an
organized activity(planned).
• Plan is imperative as it will be a “blueprint” that
will direct the whole activity.
• Plan is usually done in the form of research
proposal
 Characteristics…Cont’d

4. Research is based on facts

• Data to be collected to answer the problem/s
stated depends on facts and need to be
interpreted meaningfully.
 Characteristics…Cont’d

5. Research gives rise to further unexplored

questions
• The solution of one problem may lead to another
problem which may be potential for another
research undertaking.
• Research is a never ending activity/ process.
• It is cyclical
 Characteristics…Cont’d

6.Research is a scholarly/learned
/academic/intellectual investigation
• Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation of hypothetical
prepositions.
• It engages in revealing new insights into the
world around us
• It is a systematic quest for undiscovered truth.
 Characteristics…Cont’d

7. Research Generates Valid Data

Research gathers new data or knowledge which
could be analyzed, interpreted and used for various
purposes.

8. Research guides decision making

• Research generates valid data.
• Research provides information for
decision making.
 Characteristics…Cont’d

9. Research is a responsibility to one’s

profession and institution
• Research is viewed as vehicle towards the
solution to observed problems in the workplace.
• Research is an input to sustainable
development.
 Characteristics…Cont’d
10. Research is an output of rational and nagging
desires to improve the way we are and do our
work.
11. Research is used to look into problems that
bother people in their environment.
• Solutions are sought and, in so doing, it
consequently paves the way towards improving
conditions.
12. Research is purposive
• The main or principal purpose and goal of
research is the preservation and improvement
of the quality/reality of life.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Other Characteristics of Research
• objective
• precise
• verifiable
• Parsimonious-economical
• empirical
• logical
 Competence Needed in Research

1. Competence in the use of library

• Do you have the skill to use the library?
• Can you locate the necessary information you
would need with the least time?
• Do you know how to use the card catalogue?
• Can you make use of the computer or other
facilities of the library for accessing information
you need?
• Are you aware of the rules and regulations set
by the library management?
 Competence…Cont’d

2.Competence in the use of computer

• Can you make use of the computer for word
processing or using special programs for
statistical computations or for storing data and
information or for creating tables and graphics?.
• Are you aware of the power of web?
• Can you access information through the internet
or communication with others using e mail?
 Competence…Cont’d

3.Competence related to statistics and related

measurements
• Can you classify the data?
• Do you have the competence to use the
appropriate statistical tool based on your
research problem and type of data?
• How do you determine the sample of the given
population?
 Competence…Cont’d
4. Communication competency
• The ability to construct research
instruments like survey questionnaire or
an interview schedule (question asked
and their logic).
• To disseminate research out put,
proposal or research report .
• Interpret data after processing .
 Competence…Cont’d
5. Research Process
• Selecting and defining the research problem,
• Conceptualizing the research from a theoretical
framework,
• Designing the research and describing the
research methodology,
• Gathering data,
• Analyzing and interpreting findings,
• Making conclusions, and
• Making recommendations/Implications.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Research Process Cycle

Identifying A Research Problem

·Specifying a problem
·Justifying it
·Why do we need to study it?

Reporting & Evaluating Reviewing the Literature

·What does this mean? ·Locating Resources
·Which audience ·Selecting
·Structuring report ·Summarizing

Analysis/Interpretation Purpose and Methodology

·Breaking down data ·Purpose Statements
·Depicting Data ·Funneling/Narrowing to
·Explaining Data research questions or
hypothesis

Collecting Data
·Study Groups/Control & Treatment
·Permission
·Gathering Information

Educational Research 22
 Research Cycle & Thesis Chapters
Identifying A Research Problem Chapter One
Chapter Five ·Specifying a problem
·Justifying it
·Why do we need to study it?

Reporting & Evaluating Reviewing the Literature

·What does this mean? ·Locating Resources
·Which audience Chapter Two ·Selecting
·Structuring report ·Summarizing

Analysis/Interpretation Purpose and

·Breaking down data Methodology
·Depicting Data ·Purpose Statements
·Explaining Data Chapter Three ·Funneling/Narrowing to
research questions or
hypothesis

Collecting Data
·Study Groups/Control & Treatment
·Permission
Chapter Four ·Gathering Information

Educational Research 23
 Summary: The General Research Framework

Background/Rationale Statement of Research Research Design

Problem/Hypothesis
Problem sensing Read /Think Assumption

Problem Review of
Theory Building
conceptualization
Gap Analysis
Specifying
Research Problem Research Hypothesis-
Situational Problem Variables Design
Read /Indicators
think literature
Review of
Rationale and Purpose of literature Data Collection and
the Study Analysis

Common Sensing Scientific Investigation

Action/Further Research Recommendation Conclusion Findings

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Types of Research

There are generally two ways of classifying

research:
• One classification is based on purpose and
• The other way of classifying research is on the
basis of method used in conducting the research
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Research Based on purpose

1. Basic /Fundamental/Pure research

2. Applied Research
3. Action research and
4. Developmental research
 1. Basic /Fundamental/Pure research
• Basic research is concerned with the
development of a theory and its refinement.
• Its primary purpose is the broadening of
knowledge and not immediate solution of a
problem.
• It is directed towards evolving new and additional
knowledge
• or enhancement of subject matter that involves
developing and testing theories.
• It is usually conducted in the laboratory.>>>>>>
• FUNDAMENTAL or BASIC RESEARCH- includes
discoveries in the field of medicines, science, etc.
 2. Applied Research
• Applied research is directed towards practical
application of knowledge and aims at finding an
explanation for an observed problem.
• It can also aim at testing theory to evaluate its
usefulness in education, business, management
and the like.
• APPLIED RESEARCH- includes researches which on
the basis of evidence, confirm or disconfirm a prior
prediction or statement

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 3. Action research
• ACTION RESEARCH- is to find an immediate solution to a
situational problem.
• This refers to the type of research that is concerned
with the solution of a specific problem in local
situation.
• This research is conducted by a person who uses
the findings to improve bothering current situations.
• This type of research is popularly used in school
system as it discovers and identifies a problem in
the classroom, or in management of the school.
• Action research is the process by which practitioners
attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to
guide, correct, and evaluate their decisions and actions.
 4. Developmental/Technical research
• It refers to systematic work drawing on existing
knowledge gained from research and /or practical
experiences that
• is directed to producing new materials, products and
devices;
• to installing new processes, systems and services
and
• to improve substantially those already produced or
installed ones.
• This type of research is applied in prototyping,
inventing, innovating and improvising and fabricating.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Summary: Research classified by Purpose
Type of Primary Purposes Characteristics
Research
Basic/ Broadening the knowledge  Directed towards evolving new or additional
Fundament and not the immediate knowledge or enhancement of subject matter
al solution of a problem.  Involves developing and testing theories
Applied Aims at finding a solution to  Directed towards practical application of
an observed practical knowledge.
problem.  It can also aim at testing a theory to evaluate
its usefulness in education, business,
management and the like
Action Primary purpose is to find  The findings are used to improve bothering
an immediate solution to a current situations.
situational problem.  It is situational
 Findings are true for the specific situations
only and cannot be used to generalize other
situations.
Developme For producing new  For the substantial improvements of existing
ntal materials, products, and products, processes and devices.
devices: installing new >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
process, systems and
service.
 Research Classified Based on Methods
used
1. Historical
2. Descriptive Research
• Qualitative (case study and ethnography)
• Quantitative (survey)
• Correlation
• Expost facto
3. Experimental research
4. Online Research
 1. Historical Research
• Historical – finds out “what was”
• This research gives meaning to events and
happenings.
• Its purpose is to assess and understand the
message the events and happenings convey.
• It aims to arrive at conclusions concerning
trends, causes and effects of past occurrences
that may help explain present events and
anticipating future events.
 Historical…Cont’d

• It is essentially based on documents or official

records, recording of testimonies,
• and accounts of people who are participants and
observers of the event.
• No questionnaire or research instruments are used.
• In the search for historical truth, historical research
relies upon primary data if at all possible.
 Historical…Cont’d
• Primary data are accounts of eyewitness or
observers. These could come as:
1. A record of eyewitnesses or observers words
which they have written, or reported to have
been spoken.
2. A testimony of their associates and contacts
and,
3. A form of documents ( charters, laws, contracts,
constitutions, proclamations, receipts,
inscriptions, portfolios, books, diaries, journals,
logbooks, proceedings of meetings and others).
 Historical…Cont’d
Secondary data may come:
• From books, encyclopedias, almanacs etc.
• As articles published in professional journals,
magazines, newspapers, and other
publications.
• As monographs, manuscripts, etc. and
• As other second- hand sources.
 Historical…Cont’d
• The integrity of a historical study and its
reliability rely much on the authenticity of the
data be it primary or secondary data.
• Thus, the burden for authenticity of data
gathered is born on the shoulders of the
researchers.
 2. Descriptive Research
• Descriptive- finds out “what is”
• Employing this method deals with collecting data to
gather information about present existing conditions
• without analyzing relationship among variables.
• It also explores the factors that cause a
phenomenon.
• Other authors call this type of research as
exploratory or normative survey.
• It implies that whatever is observed at any given point is
normal and under the same conditions, could be
observed at any time thereafter.
 Different types of Descriptive Research

1. Qualitative research
• This kind of research in which the investigator
attempts to study naturally occurring
phenomena in all their complexity.
a)Case Study
• This is an intensive and exhaustive study about
an individual or group of individuals, and
institution or event.
• It is a detailed study about a person or unit over a
considerable period of time.
 Case study cont’d
• It must be noted that observation is primary techniques of
gathering information.
• It is suggested that the case studies could be used in
TVET as supplemental to other forms or research to gain
deeper insights in solving problems.
• Sample Topic:
• An analysis of the teaching behavior of TVET faculty
member who is the subject of complaint by the majority
of teachers.
• A study of the performance of disabled and
disadvantaged technician students in a particular
curricular program mainstreamed with regular students
 Descriptive…Cont’d
2. Quantitative research
• This is a kind of research in which the
researchers attempt to clarify phenomena
through carefully designed and controlled data
collection and analysis.
a)Survey
• This method involves gathering limited data
from large number of cases.
• A survey study is an attempt to obtain data from
members of a population (or sample) to
determine the current status of the population
with respect to one or more variables.
 Survey…Cont’d
• In conducting surveys, observation in one way
or another is absolutely essential.
• The survey research gathers information
about variables and not about individuals.
• Studies of this type are used to measure the
existing occurrences without inquiring into
why it exits.
• This survey does not go into studying
relationships.
• Surveys may be conducted cross-sectionally or
longitudinally.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
• In social science, the two researches most
commonly employed are quantitative and
qualitative.
• These research types do not exist in dichotomy.
Rather, they are in a continuum one supports
the other.
 Descriptive…Cont’d
3. Correlation research
• This refers to a study conducted to find out if
any relationships exits between variables that
is how a variable varies with another.
• These studies are also designed to help you
determine the extent to which variables are
related to each other in population of interest.
Thus, such study may be used for the purpose
of prediction.
 Descriptive…Cont’d
• In this study, you use measure of correlation to
determine the magnitude and
directions of the relationship.
• A high magnitude of correlation will show that a
strong relationship exists between
variables under study. However, a high
correlation coefficient does not signify
a cause and effect relationships.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Descriptive…Cont’d
4. Ex post Facto research
• This type of research is conducted where both
the effect and hypothetical cause/s have already
occurred.
• Ex post facto means” after the fact”.
• This type of study lacks manipulation of variables
which is considered as its weaknesses.
• you cannot control the independent variables that
cause certain effect .
• Their manifestation have already occurred or
because they are inherently not manipulable.
 5.Experimental research

• This method of research attempts to control the

whole research situation except for some
input variables which are thought of as the
cause of an effect.
• The underlying concept in this type of
research is control.
• The variable that is manipulated is
sometimes referred to as an independent
variable, a treatment, or a cause.
 Experimental…Cont’d

Features of Experimental Research are the

involvement of two groups:
• Experimental group- the group that is exposed
to the influence of a factor an intervention or
treatment.
• Control group- the group that is not exposed to
the same factor upon which the experimental
group is exposed to.
 Experimental…Cont’d
The concept of experimentation has the following
characteristics.
• There is an independent variables that is manipulated
• All other variables except the dependent variable are
held constant: and
• The effect of manipulating the independent variable on
the dependent variables is observed and measured.
• Sample Topic
• An experiment to determine the effectiveness of an
innovative approach to teaching thermodynamics in
technician program in terms of student
achievement.
 4. Online Research
• The term online refers to being connected via
modern or network to other computers (Williams
et al., 1995).
• Online research is sometimes referred to as
web-based research.
• It is known as research that is conducted via the
Internet usually with surveys hosted on the net
and assessed by respondents.
• Online research methods are ways in which
researchers can collect data via the Internet.
 Types of Online Research
1. Market research
• Market research includes both primary and
secondary researches. As a primary research, there
are web page survey, email survey, and online focus
group.
2. Web page survey
• This is a form of quantitative survey where
responses are solicited and expected within a short
period of time. Questionnaires are the common
research instruments.
3. Email survey
• This is used as one qualitative type of survey where
a high response level is expected.
 Types of Online…Cont’d
4. Online focus group
• This is conducted using the Internet through the
online chatting. Such web-based research can
itself form part of an interactive relationship with
customers, associates, and employees.
5. Tracer studies
• This could be conducted to trace the graduates
through the Internet.
6. Online interviews
• This could be done by using the internet system
like video conferencing, Skype, and etc.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Practical Research Tips
• One of the useful scientific research
methodologies for improving instruction in TVET
is action research. Below are possible areas
where action research can be conducted.
1.Improving the practice of using CAI (Computer
Assisted Instruction) in teaching abstract
concepts.
2.Studying the effectiveness of a teaching
methodology in the teaching of some difficult
subjects perceived by technician students.
 Practical Research Tips…Cont’d
3.Developing a learning module using emerging
technologies, like the DVD and its acceptability.
4.Determining factors related to students’
performance in a technical subject.
5.Conducting item analysis of examination
questions in lecture subjects.
 1.Planning the Research
• Planning is the most important stage to ensure
success in research.
• Planning is manifested in a research
proposal submitted to proper authorities for
funding approval, or
• While it is simply submitted for the
approval to conduct such activity in TVET, or
• Submitted as a proposal for a thesis / senior
project in a graduate school.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
• 2. The Research Problem
• The term problem means the
question or the issue one wants
to study or investigate
• Research problem is nothing but
an issue or a question that one
wants to examine in a systematic
way
 2. The Research Problem…
• Whatever type of research is to be conducted
the phases that you will undergo are relatively
the same.
• The first phase is defining a problem. This
phase is usually considered by researchers as
the most important ones.
• The heart of any research study is the
problem.
• If there is no problem, there will be no
research process. Thus, any research should
evolve out of a problem.
 The Research Problem…

• In fact it is central to the entire

research process.
• It is like knowing the destination
of your journey before one
undertakes the journey.
Scholars say a research problem is
like the foundation of a building.
As the foundation provides the
basis for the building so is the
problem for the research.
• This step is usually
considered by the
researchers as the most
difficult but most important.
• It must be understood that
the heart of any research
study is the problem.
 If there is no problem,
there could be no
research process.
Thus, any research should
evolve out of a problem
 Sources of a Research Problem

• Problems on research are

everywhere. The main source of
research problem is the environment.
Turn yourself around and look
at your environment.
• What is there to arouse your interest?
• What touches your curiosity?
• Some of these sources are: everyday
life, practical issues, past research,
theories and others.
• Everyday life is one common source
of research ideas. Based on a
questioning and inquisitive
approach, you can draw from your
experiences and come up with many
research topics.
Practical issues can be a source of
research ideas.
• What are some current problems
facing education (e.g., facing
administrators, teachers, students,
parents).
• What research topics do you think
can address some of these current
problems?
Past research is probably the most
important source of research ideas.
• That’s because a great deal of educational
research has already been conducted on a
multitude of topics, and, importantly,
research usually generates more questions
than it answers.
• This is also the best way to come up with a
specific idea that will fit into and extend the
research literature.
 Theory (i.e.,
explanations of
phenomena) can also
be a good source of
research ideas.
 Research in social science revolves around
four Ps-sources
• People - a group of individuals
• Problems - examine the existence of certain
issues or problems relating to their lives; to
ascertain attitude of a group of people
towards an issue
• Programs - to evaluate the effectiveness of an
intervention
• Phenomena - to establish the existence of
regularity.
 Criteria for Evaluating a Research Problem

INTERNAL CRITERIA:
1.  Researchers interest: The researcher must be
interested in the problem. It is interest that
arouses ones curiosity and enables one to get
involved in the research.
• Lack of interest may not provide the
required energy to continue the research.
• Interest may vary according to ones
educational background, experience and
outlook.
2.  Researcher’s competence: To identify a
research problem one needs certain
competence. Without this one can never
make a beginning.
• Competence enables one to work out a plan
for solving the problem.
• Competence in terms of familiarity with
regard to the subject matter, certain
analytical skill and knowledge of research are
essential for a good research.
3. Researcher’s own resources: There are two
kinds of resources required to undertake a research.
One is time and the other is money.
• One should have realistic picture of these two
resources. For example if one does not have
adequate financial resources one can seek external
help or take up a research that can suit ones
budget.
• In the same way one should have sufficient time to
complete a research.

Research is a time consuming process and one should

have the required time for it.
EXTERNAL CRITERIA:
1.  Researchability: The problem must be
researchable. It should be possible for the
researcher to investigate into the problem.
• In other words one should be able to make
an observation and collect data in a real
world situation.
• Thus the problem should not be too general
or otherworldly.
2.  Importance and urgency: Although human
beings are bombarded with numerous problems
when it comes to research one has to prioritized.
• As resources are limited one has to go by relative
importance and significance. Naturally urgent
problems gain greater importance over other
ones.
3. Facilities: Any research requires certain facilities
like library, guidance, facilities for data analysis
etc. Thus one should have the required facilities
for the research.
4.  Social relevance: Researches should have a
social relevance. Especially in fields like
Technology, rural development one needs to
pay greater attention to this aspect.
5.  Research personnel: Research requires
certain expertise. Not all can undertake
research.
• Different researches need different levels of
knowledge, experience and talents.
• One has to see the availability of research
personnel before undertaking research.
Research Problem should not be:
• Overdone
• No controversial subject
• Not too narrow or too vague
• Not too familiar and feasible

It should be within
the budget
 Ideas that Cannot Be Researched Empirically

• Empirical research (i.e., research that is

based on the collection of observable
data) cannot provide answers to
“ultimate,” “metaphysical,” or “ethical”
questions.
• If a question is asking which value is true
or correct, empirical research can’t offer
the solution.
Examples:
• Is school prayer good?
• Should homosexuals be allowed to legally marry?
• Should the teaching of Christianity (and no other
religion) be provided in public schools?
• These are moral and legal issues which cannot be
directly addressed or resolved by empirical
research.
• So do not expect to conduct an empirical research
study that will "show philosophical, religious and
moral or judgmental questions."
Examples:
Researchable and non researchable problems
• What are the achievement and social skill
differences between children attending an
academically or socially oriented pre-school
program?
• What is the relationship between teachers'
knowledge of assessment methods and their
use of them?
 Non-researchable problems include
explanations of how to do something, vague
propositions, and value-based concerns
• Is democracy a good form of government?
• Should values clarification be taught in public
schools?
• Can crime be prevented?
• Should physical education classes be dropped
from the high school curriculum?
 Steps in Formulating of a Research Problem

Step 1- Identify a broad field or subject area of

interest to you.
Step 2- Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3- Select what is of most interesting to you.
Step 4- Raise a research question.
Step 5- Formulate objectives.
Step 6- Assess your objectives.
Step 7- Double check.
 Examples, please…
General
Topic Distance learning
Research Lack of students in
Problem distance ed. Classes
Purpose To study why
Statement students do not
/G.objecti attend distance ed.
ve classes at a private
college
Does the use of Web
site technology in the
Research classroom deter
Questions students from
enrolling in a distance
ed. class?
Specific

EAL 7794 Fall 05 80

 Statement of the Problem
• Includes the following 5 Elements:
1. Introduction of the Topic
• Set the stage, provide context
2. Stating the research problem
3. Justifying the research problem
• Why must it be studied? Who Cares?
4. Identifying Deficiencies in the Evidence
5. Addressing it to the appropriate audience

EAL 7794 Fall 05 81

 Flow of Ideas in a Statement of the Problem
Research Relating to
Topic Justification Deficiencies
Problem Audience/beneficier

Subject • A concern • Evidence from the • What’s missing? • How will addressing
Area or issue literature • What do we need this topic help others?
• A problem • Evidence from to know more
• Something practical experience about?
that needs a
solution

EAL 7794 Fall 05 82

 Ways and Forms of Stating Research Problems

• Research Problems: typically a rather general

overview of the problem with enough
information about the scope and purpose of
the study to provide an initial understanding
of the research
• Research statements and/or questions: more
specific, focused statements and questions
that communicate in greater detail the nature
of the study
Examples:
General research problem:
Investigating the attitudes of high school students
towards mandated drug testing programs

Specific Statements and questions:

examining the differences between males' and
females' attitudes toward mandated high school drug
testing programs.
What are the differences between freshmen,
sophomore, junior, and senior students' attitudes
toward mandated high school drug testing
programs?
 The Formulation of Objectives

Objectives are the goals a researcher set out to

attain in the study

Objectives should be listed under two

headings:
1.Main Objectives – An overall statement of
the thrust of the study
2. Sub Objectives –Specific aspects of the topic
should be listed numerically
 Characteristics of Objectives

1.Clear
2.Complete
3.Specific
4.Identify the main variables to be
correlated
5.Identify the directions of the
relationship
 6.Use action oriented words or verbs when
writing objectives.

The objectives should start with the words such

as:
• ‘to determine’,
• ‘to find out’,
• ‘to ascertain’,
• ‘to measure’,
• ‘to explore, etc.
 The wording of objectives determines the type of
research (descriptive, correlational and experimental)

and the type of research design you need to adopt to

achieve them.
Descriptive Studies:
• To describe the types of incentives
provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in
Mumbai.
• To find out the opinion of the employees
about the medical facilities provided by
five star hotels in Mumbai.
Correlational Studies:
• To ascertain the impact of
training on employee retention.
• To compare the effectiveness of
different loyalty programes on
repeat clientele.
Theoretical and Conceptual framework
• As soon as you have clarified your research
topic and consequently your research problem,
you are now ready to define your conceptual
framework.
• You as a researcher starts with review of related
literature and studies to formulate the theoretical
framework.
 Theoretical/conceptual framework
• Theoretical framework presents the theory or set of
theories that will explain why a phenomenon exits.
Basically, this framework is a structure of ideas, a set
or system of facts and ideas serving to orient one to
a viewpoint or theory.
• Conceptual framework describes viewpoint and
stance on the problem after his exposure to various
theories relevant to the problem. This serves as the
researcher’s guide in conducting his investigation
which will be later illustrated by a research paradigm.
• The research paradigm is graphical representation of
the research process. It explains relationship
between variables: therefore it becomes as guide in
the conduct of research.
 Review of related Literature and Studies

• The development of the framework begins with

the review of related literature.
• The review of related literature is a major
process by which you can link your topic and
problem to the existing body of knowledge.
• Thus, you consult books, references, journals,
research reports as well as theses and
dissertations, researches and studies conducted
and other sources from the web.
 Review…Cont’d
• The review involves systematic identification,
location, and analysis of literature containing
information linked to your topic or problem.
• The purpose of the review of related literature is
to tell you what research has already been done
before and to explain or make clear the
underlying principle or theory of your problem.
 Review…Cont’d
1. Do’s
• Do include only those studies that are related to your
research in terms of purpose, methods or findings.
• Do describe how studies reviewed relate to your research:
examine the literature in terms of relevance to your
research.
• Do describe the interrelationship of the studies reviewed
giving commonalities, differences, weaknesses and strength
• Do go to the library equipped with data gathering tools like
index cards, or note cards, paper clips, envelopes, cameras,
etc.
• Do have more than one copy of your bibliographic entry for
security purposes in case of loss, keep them in separate
boxes.
 Review…Cont’d
2. Don’ts
• Don’t just enumerate references and studies for the sake
of making your research report appear voluminous.
• Don’t search literature that sounds exactly your
research. Otherwise, if you succeed in doing so, then
your work becomes already explored, thus, there is no
more need for conducting research. This is why this
section is called related literature.
• Don’t embark on review without any plan. You must be
clear what is it that you want to do
• Don’t tear pages of books to gather data or information.
You must have a systematic way of taking down notes.
• Don’t gather data using loose pieces of paper.
 Review…Cont’d
Purpose of review:
• Suggest the method or technique to approach your research,
• Reveal the data and facts,
• Reveal authorities who contributed significantly to related
studies as yours,
• Help you to see your study in the light of other studies
undertaken earlier,
• Assist you to evaluate your own research in relation with
others,
• Provide you the feeling of self-confidence since you will be
supported by ideas and concepts related to your study and that
there are strong indications that what you have in mind can be
validated,
• Provide you with information about researches undertaken
earlier so that no duplication will occur and will lead you into
what things can still be investigated.
 Review…Cont’d
• From the review of related literature, you are
now prepared to formulate theoretical scheme
for your research problem which is a provisional
explanation of the phenomenon or problem you
will study.
• It is a theoretical scheme that will form a basis
for formulating the research hypothesis/es.
• Usually, this is graphically represented by research
paradigm.
 Variables
Definition:
• A variable is a characteristic that has two or
more mutually exclusive values or properties.
• It is anything that may change or may be
changed from one condition to another, either
qualitatively or quantitatively.
• Variables are the factors or properties that are
being studied.
 Three types of variables
• If you have control over a variable and is able to
manipulate or change it will then we say that the
variables is independent variable.
• It occurs as the result of the effect of the independent
variable, we say it is dependent variable. The
dependent variable is anything, condition, or process
exposed to or upon which treatments or actions from
the independent variables are applied.
• A moderator variable or sometimes referred to as
control variable is one that may affect the
relationships between independent and dependent
variables.
 Hypothesis
• The research problem and theoretical scheme are
the bases to formulate hypothesis/es.
• Definition: A hypothesis is a conjectural statement
or educated guess about the relationships between
two or more variables.
• Hypothesis is tentative intelligent guess posited for
the purpose of assisting a researcher in directing
one’s thinking toward the solution.
• Hypothesis is a preposition that attempts to explain
a set of facts in a unified way.
• This statement is based on existing information
and will be tested experimentally or empirically to
establish plausibility.
 Types of Hypothesis

I. Null and Alternative hypotheses

• Null hypothesis means” non - existent”, thus
null hypothesis refers to non existence of effect,
of interactions, of relationships, and of
difference.
• Alternative hypothesis is considered the
operational form that is stated in the affirmative.
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
• They guide in investigation
• Hypotheses are dependent in their acceptance
or rejection upon what the facts reveal
• Hypotheses should originate considerably from
the problem
• The research hypothesis/es are changed into
their null form for statistical treatment/testing
• They are not formulated just for the sake of
requirement
• Nothing to do with proof, neither proved or
disapproved
• Does not originate by chance
 Examples of Alt and Null Hypothesis
Question 1: Is there a significant difference between
the effectiveness of competency based approach
and the conventional approach in teaching civil
technology?
• Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant
difference between the effectiveness of competency-
based approach and the conventional approach in
teaching civil technology.
• Null Hypothesis: there is no significant difference
between the effectiveness of competency-based
approach and the conventional approach in the
teaching of civil technology.
 Examples…Cont’d
Question 2: Which of the following factors
predict the employability of technician education
graduates: technician education graduate-
related factors ( age, civil status, skills, grade
point average upon graduation from TVET
Institutions, IQ, TVET Institution graduated from,
Technician Education program attended: TVET
related factors (adequacy of instructional
materials, and facilities, OJT programs, faculty
competence)?
 Examples…Cont’d
• Alternative Hypothesis: The following factors
predict the employability of technician education
graduates: technician education graduate
related factors and TVET Institution related
factors.
• Null Hypothesis: The following factors do not
predict the employability of technician education
graduate: technician education, graduate -
related factors and TVET Institution-related
factors.
 Types…Cont’d
II. Inductive and deductive hypotheses
• The other way of classifying hypotheses is in
terms of how they are derived (inductive versus
deductive hypotheses) or how they are stated
(declarative versus null hypotheses).
• The other way of classifying hypotheses is in
terms of how they are derived (inductive versus
deductive hypotheses) or how they are stated
(declarative versus null hypotheses).
 Types…Cont’d
• For example, a researcher observes that in
many eighth-grade classrooms students who are
given essay test appear to show less testing
stress than those who are given multiple-choice
tests. This observation could become the basis
for an inductive hypothesis.
 Types…Cont’d
• Deductive hypothesis are generally derived
from theory. For example, a study conducted
some years back found no significant differences
in retention between a group receiving a review
one day after learning and a group receiving a
review seven days after learning.
• In deriving a hypothesis from a theory, you
should be sure that your hypothesis is a logical
implication of theory, not a wild, unsupported
inferential leap.
 Types…Cont’d
III. non- directional or directional hypothesis
• A non-directional hypothesis simple states that a
relationship or difference exists between
variables.
• A directional hypothesis states the expected
direction of the relationship or difference.
 Types…Cont’d
For example, a non-directional hypothesis might state:
• There is a significant difference in the achievement of TVET
Survey students who are instructed using interactive multimedia
and those who receive regular instruction only.
The corresponding directional hypothesis might state:
• TVET Survey students who are instructed using interactive
multimedia achieve at a higher level than those who receive
regular instruction only.
• The non-directional hypothesis states that there will be a difference
between TVET Survey groups, while the directional hypothesis states
that there will be a difference and that the difference will favor
interactive media instruction.
• A directional hypothesis should only be stated if you have a basis to
believe that the results will occur in the stated direction. Non-
directional and directional hypothesis involve different types of
statistical tests of significance.
 Types…Cont’d
• Finally, a null hypothesis states that there is no
significant relationship or difference between
variables. For example, a null hypothesis might
state:
• There is no significant difference in the
achievement level of TVET Survey students who
are instructed using interactive multimedia and
those who receive regular instruction.
• The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of choice
when there is little research or theoretical support
for a hypothesis. Also, statistical tests for the null
hypothesis are more conservative than they are for
directional hypothesis.
 Types…Cont’d
• Hypotheses are critical aspects of quantitative
research approaches; they focus the study on
the methods and strategies needed to collect
data to test the hypotheses.
• As noted previously, the aims and strategies
of qualitative research differ from those of
quantitative research.
• As a general rule, qualitative researchers do
not state hypotheses to guide the conduct of
their studies (Source: Robert C. Bogdan;
n.d: 71-75). >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Definition of Terms

• Sometimes words are interpreted in various ways. This

should be available in research as it may affect the
plausibility of the findings, key words and variables need
to be defined clearly according to the exact meaning you
want the reader to understand them to avoid
misinterpretation.
• Clear definition should be stated for all key words and
variables especially if these terms are to be measured
through a research instruments.
• An operational definition is a working definition. It
should be defined the way by which you will use the term
in research. To be explicit and unambiguous, you may
include the conceptual and operational definition in
defining a term.
 Examples
• Administrator- in this study it refers to the
principal /president or administrator of TVET
Institution appointed by the board to manage
and supervise the organization.
• Teacher – in this study it refers as someone who
is a technical teacher with at least three years of
teaching experience in the field of electrical
technology.
 4. Operational framework/Method
• This section focuses on the methodology of the
research.
• It is concerned with how the research is to be
undertaken.
• It defines the structure and strategy/ies of
investigation to achieve the objectives for which
the study has been conceived.
• This section describes the research or project
design.
 Nature of Data and Methodology
• Data can be written or observed, and from
these come the different methodologies. Which
means the type of data will dictate what type of
methodology will be used.
Type of data:
• Documents: written records and accounts.
• Observations: which you as a researchers make
directly; observation which are quantified; and
observations arising from comparison.
Nature of Data and Methodology…Cont’d

• The research methodology is an operational

framework within which the facts are placed
so that their meanings may be seen more
clearly.
 Two categories of research in TVET
1. Technical developmental research projects:
• the project structure (design), development
procedures, testing and validation procedures as well
as evaluation for technical development research
projects.
2. Social Science research:
• The research design should indicate the type of
research method that will be employed in conducting
research.
• The method should specify the sources of data, data-
gathering procedure and tools, research instruments,
nature of data and its relation to social science
research.
 1. Social Science Research
Sources of Data
• You should choose the samples of study or
source of evidence that will be used in
accordance with your problems.
1.Who will be the subject/participants?
2.How many will you involve to get a
representative sample of the populations?
3.What will be the basis of your selection?
 Difference Between population and sample

• A Sample is a small group that you will study

extracted from a larger group. The sample is the
group upon which information is to be obtained.
• The larger group to which the researchers expect to
apply the results of the study is called populations.
This is the group from which the sample is
extracted. Most populations of interest to
researchers are large, scattered, and varied.
Contacting can be time-consuming and expensive.
It is for this reason that researchers select a sample
to study.
 Selecting samples
Population, sample and individual cases

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases

 Reasons for Sampling

• Sampling can save money.

• Sampling can save time.
• For given resources, sampling can broaden the
scope of the data set.
• Because the research process is sometimes
destructive, the sample can save product.
• If accessing the population is impossible; sampling
is the only option.

© 2002 Thomson / South-Western Slide 7-123

 The need to sample

Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when

• A survey of the entire population is impracticable

• Budget constraints restrict data collection

• Time constraints restrict data collection

• Results from data collection are needed quickly

 Reasons for Taking a Census

• Eliminate the possibility that a random sample

is not representative of the population.

• The person authorizing the study is

uncomfortable with sample information.

© 2002 Thomson / South-Western Slide 7-125

Determination of Sample Size
• Before you can calculate a sample size, you need to determine
• Population Size — How many total people fit your demographic?
For instance, if you want to know about mothers living in the
Ethiopia, your population size would be the total number of
mothers living in the Ethiopia.
• Margin of Error (Confidence Interval) — No sample will be
perfect, so you need to decide how much error to allow. The
confidence interval determines how much higher or lower than
the population mean you are willing to let your sample mean fall.
If you’ve ever seen a political poll on the news, you’ve seen a
confidence interval. It will look something like this: “68% of
voters said yes to Proposition Z, with a margin of error of +/- 5%.”
• Confidence Level — How confident do you want to be
that the actual mean falls within your confidence
interval? The most common confidence intervals are
90% confident, 95% confident, and 99% confident.
• Standard of Deviation — How much variance do you
expect in your responses? Since we haven’t actually
administered our survey yet, the safe decision is to
use .5 – this is the most forgiving number and ensures
that your sample will be large enough.
• Your confidence level corresponds to a Z-score. This is a
constant value needed for this equation. Here are the z-
scores for the most common confidence levels:
• 90% – Z Score = 1.645
• 95% – Z Score = 1.96
 Determination of Sample Size
• The following formula is presented to have a scientific
determination of sample size.
Ss=NV+[Se2(1-P)]
NSe+[V2p (1-P)]
Where:
• Ss= sample size
• N= Total number of population
• V= Standard value (2.58) at 1 percent level of probability
with 0.99 reliability
• Se= Sampling error (0.01)
• P = Largest possible proportion (0.50)
• The formula is workable when the population is more than
100.
 Steps to calculate Sample
Step1. Determine the total population (N) as
assumed subjects of the study.
Step2. Get the values of V(2.58), Se (0.01), and
P(0.50).
Step3. Complete the sample size using the formula
above.
• For instance, the total population (N) is 900, the
standard value (V) at 1 percent level of probability
is 2.58 with 99% reliability and has sampling error
(Se) of 1 % or 0.01 and the proportion (P) of a
target population is 50% of 0.50.
 Steps…Cont’d
The sample size is computed as follows:
Given: N=900
V=2.58
Se= 0.01
P = 0.50
Ss=NV+[Se2 (1-P)]
NSe+[V2p (1-P)]
 Steps…Cont’d

= 900 (2.58) + (0.01)2 (1-0.50)

900(0.01) + (2.58)2 X 0.50 (1-0.50)
= 2322.00005
10.6641
Ss = 218
• Therefore, the sample size for a population of
900 is 218. This sample, 218, will represent
the subjects of the study.
Table used to determine Sample
N Sample N Sample N Sample
size size size
100 97 500 194 900 218
125 111 525 196 925 219
150 122 575 200 950 220
175 132 600 202 1000 221
200 141 625 204 1100 224
225 148 650 205 1500 232
250 155 675 207 1700 235
275 161 700 208 2000 238
300 166 725 210 2500 242
325 171 750 211 3000 244
350 179 775 212 3500 246
425 185 825 215 4000 248
450 188 850 216 4500 249
475 191 875 217 5000 250
 Strategies in sampling
There are sampling strategies used in research.
These are:
1.Random sampling(using the table of random
numbers and lottery sampling),
2.Systematic sampling,
3. Stratified sampling,
4. Cluster sampling, and
5. Non-cluster sampling.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Random vs Nonrandom Sampling
• Random sampling
• Every unit of the population has the same probability of being
included in the sample.
• A chance mechanism is used in the selection process.
• Eliminates bias in the selection process
• Also known as probability sampling
• Nonrandom Sampling
• Every unit of the population does not have the same probability of
being included in the sample.
• Open the selection bias
• Not appropriate data collection methods for most statistical methods
• Also known as nonprobability sampling

© 2002 Thomson / South-Western Slide 7-134

 Sampling
Probability Samples
Probability samples offer each respondent an equal
probability or chance at being included in the
sample.
They are considered to be:
• Objective
• Empirical
• Scientific
• Quantitative
• Representative
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Sampling
Non Probability Samples
A non probability sample relies on the
researcher selecting the respondents.
They are considered to be:
• Interpretivist
• Subjective
• Not scientific
• Qualitative
• Unrepresentative

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Classification of Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods

Probability Non-
Samples probability

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

Simple
Cluster Judgment Quota
Random
 Simple Random Sampling
• When each member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample:
A. Using the table of Random Numbers. Most books in
Statistics and research include tables of random
numbers. This is the most systematic technique for
getting sample units at random.
• This involves selecting anybody from the sample frame entirely
at random.
• Random means that each person within the sample frame has
an equal chance of being selected.
• In order to be random, a full list of everyone within a sample
frame is required.
• Random number tables or a computer is then used to select
respondents at random from the list.
 How to use a random number table.

• Let’s assume that we have a population of 185 students and each student has been
assigned a number from 1 to 185. Suppose we wish to sample 5 students (although
we would normally sample more, we will use 5 for this example).
• Since we have a population of 185 and 185 is a three digit number, we need to use
the first three digits of the numbers listed on the chart.
• We close our eyes and randomly point to a spot on the chart. For this example, we
will assume that we selected 20631 in the first column.
• We interpret that number as 206 (first three digits). Since we don’t have a member
of our population with that number, we go down to the next number 899 (89990).
Once again we don’t have someone with that number, so we continue at the top of
the next column. As we work down the column, we find that the first number to
match our population is 100 (actually 10005 on the chart). Student number 100
would be in our sample. Continuing down the chart, we see that the other four
subjects in our sample would be students 049, 082, 153, and 164.
• Researchers use different techniques with these tables. Some researchers read
across the table using given sets (in our examples three digit sets). For our class, we
will use the technique I have described.
•  
 Simple Random Sample
• Every subset of a specified size n from the
population has an equal chance of being
selected
 Probability Sampling
Methods
 Simple Random Sampling
 the purest form of probability sampling.
 Assures each element in the population
has an equal chance of being included in
the sample
 Random number generators

Sample Size
Probability of Selection =
Population Size
 Advantages
 minimal knowledge of population needed
 External validity high; internal validity
high; statistical estimation of error
 Easy to analyze data

 Disadvantages
 High cost; low frequency of use
 Requires sampling frame

 Does not use researchers’ expertise

 Larger risk of random error than stratified

• B. Lottery Sampling. As the term
suggest, it works like that of lottery.
Participants of the population are assigned
numbers. These numbers are written in
small pieces of paper. Each piece of paper
containing one number are rolled and
placed in a container from which picking
the desired number of participants is done.
 Random Sampling…Cont’d
3. Systematic Sampling.
• This is another strategy of sampling. It is a
planned strategy for selecting numbers of
sample drawn from one population using a
starting point selected at random, like picking
every 3rd or every 10th subject in a list
population.
 Systematic Random Sampling

• Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a

unique number.
• Select the first case using a random number
• Calculate the sampling fraction
• Select subsequent cases systematically using the
sampling fraction to determine the frequency of
selection.
• Sampling fraction = actual sample size/ total population
 Systematic Sample
• Every kth member ( for example: every 10th
person) is selected from a list of all population
members.
 Random Sampling…Cont’d
4. Cluster sampling
• This strategy takes place when you select your
sample on cluster instead of selecting individual
members in populations. This means that the
members of the group exhibit similar
characteristics. This strategy usually applied on
the basis of geographic location that is why it is
sometimes called area sampling.
 Cluster sampling
• Choose the cluster grouping for your sampling
frame.
• Number each of the clusters with a unique
number.
• Select sample of clusters using random
sampling
 Cluster Sample
• The population is divided into subgroups
(clusters) like families. A simple random
sample is taken of the subgroups and then all
members of the cluster selected are surveyed.
 5.Stratified Random Sample
• The population is divided into two or more
groups called strata, according to some
criterion, such as geographic location, grade
level, age, or income, and subsamples are
randomly selected from each strata.
 Stratified Sampling
 Sub-samples are randomly drawn from
samples within different strata that are
more or less equal on some characteristic
 Why?

 Can reduce random error

 Moreaccurately reflect the

population by more proportional
representation
 Types of Stratified Samples
 Proportional Stratified Sample:
 The number of sampling units drawn
from each stratum is in proportion to
the relative population size of that
stratum
 Disproportional Stratified Sample:
 The number of sampling units drawn
from each stratum is allocated
according to analytical considerations
e.g. as variability increases sample
size of stratum should increase
 Advantages
 Assures representation of all groups in
sample population needed
 Characteristics of each stratum can be
estimated and comparisons made
 Reduces variability from systematic

 Disadvantages
 Requires accurate information on
proportions of each stratum
 Stratified lists costly to prepare
 Non random sampling
• The use of this strategy cannot assume that
participants of the investigation are not derived
through equal chances, since this strategy
makes use of judgment in the selection of items
to be included into the group, this strategy is
sometimes called judgmental sampling.
• There are various types of non-random
sampling:
Classification of Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods

Non-
probability

Convenience Snowball

Judgment Quota
 Quota Sampling
• Divide the population into specific groups.
• Calculate quota for each group based on
relevant and available data
• Collect data from each quota
 Purposive sampling
• Extreme case/deviant sampling: unusual or
special case enable to learn the most about
the RQ.
 The sampling procedure in which an
experienced research selects the sample
based on some appropriate
characteristic of sample members… to
serve a purpose
 Advantages
 Moderate cost
 Commonly used/understood

 Sample will meet a specific objective

 Disadvantages
 Bias!
 Projecting data beyond sample not
justified.
 Snowball sampling
• Make contact with one or two cases in the
population.
• Ask these cases to identify further cases.
• Ask these new case to identify further new
cases.
• Stop when either no new cases are given or
the sample is large enough.
 Snowball Sampling
• This type of sampling is used when the research is
focused on participants with very specific
characteristics such as being members of a gang.
• Having identified and contacted one gang member
the researcher asks to be put in touch with any
friends or associates who are also gang members.
• This type of sampling is not representative
however is useful, especially where the groups in
the research are not socially organised i.e. they do
not have clubs or membership lists.

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Convenience Sample
• A convenience sample is a sample consisting
of units of the population that are easily
accessible.
• Selection of whichever individuals are easiest
to reach
• It is done at the “convenience” of the
researcher
 Convenience Sample
 The sampling procedure used to obtain
those units or people most conveniently
available
 Why: speed and cost

 External validity?

 Internal validity

 Is it ever justified?
• Say, you are a vegetable wholesaler and a truckload of
potatoes has just been brought in. It may be
convenient to sample a few buckets of potatoes taken
from the top of the load, ’cause it will be pretty hard
to get to the potatoes at the bottom.
• This is called a convenience sampling. Convenience
samples are generally biased. If you want to examine
the average weight of potato and suppose all the
heavier ones are sitting at the bottom.
• Then convenience sampling might lead to inaccuracy.
 Advantages
 Very low cost
 Extensively used/understood

 No need for list of population elements

 Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured
or controlled
 Projecting data beyond sample not
justified.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Type of sampling

1. Random sampling
Advantage
• If large enough, it is very likely to produce a
representative sample.
Disadvantage
• Biggest disadvantage is that it is not easy to do it.
Each member of the sample needs to be contacted.
2. Stratified sampling
Advantage
• It increases the likelihood of representativeness,
especially if one’s sample is not very large.
 Advantages and Disadv …Cont’d

Cluster random sampling

Advantage
• It can be used when it is difficult or impossible
to select a random sample of individuals. It is
easier to use it in TVET institutions, and is
frequently less time consuming
Disadvantage
• It requires additional effort on the part of the
researcher.
 Advantages and Disadv …Cont’d

Systematic sampling
Advantage
• Population is ordered systematically, that is the
arrangement of individuals is methodically done.
Disadvantage
• There is a great chance of selecting a sample
that is not representative of population
 Data gathering Instruments
Data gathering instruments include:
1. Tests,
2. Questionnaires,
3. Interview guides (structured and
unstructured)
4. Schedules,
5. Observation checklists,
6. Desk review .
 Instruments
There are two types of instruments:
1. standardized instruments, and
2. Constructed research instruments
If you construct your research instruments, the
following are certain consideration you need to
make:
• Reliability
• Validity
• Objectivity
 Reliability
• Reliability is one consideration that refers to
consistency, precision, or accuracy.
• Reliability of a test is measured statistically
resulting in reliability coefficient.
• Therefore, reliability is the degree of
consistency and precision or accuracy that
research measuring instruments demonstrates.
• Other terms associated with reliability are
stability, dependability, and predictability.
 Validity
• Validity is another consideration which is
defined as the extent to which a test measure
what it purports to measure.
• It deals with relationship of the data obtained to
the nature of the variables being investigated.
 Objectivity
• Objectivity is the extent to which the
instrument is independent of personal bias
or options, subjective judgment and beliefs.
• Additionally, the research instruments are free
from any influence of personal variables of the
researchers.
 Technical Developmental Research

• Technical developmental research is used when

we develop projects or prototype, Instructional
materials, fabrications, innovations, programs,
systems, and the like.
 1. Project Design
• Project design is parallel to the research
design in social science researches.
• It must also define the component parts and
what each component does for the system, or
project.
• It explains how the project will work.
• To make the design clear, black diagrams,
system designs, etc. will be most useful. In
addition, raw materials to be used must be
itemized including the specifications and details.
 2. Project development
• Procedures to be followed in the development of
the projects must be described in detail.
• This could be presented by flowchart to show
the phases or steps in the development of the
project.
• Be sure to make the appropriate shapes of
boxes and figures in the flowchart of activities.
 3. Operation and testing procedures
• After detailing how the project will be
developed, plans for validation must be
described.
• Validation is done to determine whether the
project meets the requirement initially set or
not.
• In this stage of project development, testing
and re-testing is done. Here, problems are
met and solved and then project revisions are
made until the project is perfected.
 Operation and testing…Cont’d
• In the development of prototype of anything, several
experiments runs are done to determine whether
there is consistency of results regarding its
effectiveness and efficiency.
• Sometimes, trial and error is conducted if this is
warranted. If inconsistencies are observed, efforts
are to be expended to determine what explains for
the results, after which corrective measures are
done until results become acceptable.
• When developmental projects require large
amounts of funding, testing and operating
procedure is done through simulations using special
software programs.
 Operation and testing…Cont’d
• In experimental projects, number of experimental
runs, will be described, testing procedures, and
instruments will have to be itemized.

• Type of tests to be conducted must be determined

based on project objectives set.

• In prototyping, fabrication, improvisation, and the

like, standards used must be identified and
explained. Standards are used to compare the
efficiency and /or effectiveness of the project.
 4. Evaluation procedures
• Evaluation of the overall performance of the
project must be done.
• This is a significant step to determine the
project’s efficiency, which is also the basis of
project improvement.
• The projected end users of the projects are the
most important actors in this aspect.
 Evaluation…Cont’d
• Evaluation instruments and methodology must
be clearly defined and stated.
• Thus, pointers in the construction of research
instruments need to be followed.
• Criteria for evaluating the project usually include:
reliability, validity, accuracy, precision,
portability, cost effectiveness, etc.
 Summary: Differences and Similarities
compari Social science research Technical developmental
son Research

Descripti A scientific method to study human A scientific method to study

on behavior and society. the natural sciences and
mathematics, and their
applications.
Differences
Area of Social science research deals with Technical developmental
study human behavior, and societal research deals with the natural
characteristics as well as sciences and mathematics,
tendencies. and their applications.
Researc Social science research primarily Technical and developmental
h design utilizes statistical survey and research is primary
analysis, content and textual experimental.
analysis, documentary analysis and
interviews.
 Similarities and Research Process
Similarities  This type of research makes use of essentially
similar strategies whenever and wherever needed.
 Other methodologies used
 Simulation
 Mathematical modeling
 Qualitative modeling

Research  Topic formulation

process  Problem identification
 Literature review
 Hypothesizing
 Theoretical/conceptual framework formulation
 Data gathering
 Data analysis
 Drawing conclusion and recommendation
 Statistical tools

• Data gathered is meaningless unless analyzed.

• One of the effective means of analyzing your
data in terms of the problem stated or objectives
set in the research is with the use of statistics.
• Statistics represents a manner to visualize the
facts collected.
• Statistics is defined as a language which
through its own special symbols and grammar,
takes the numerical facts of life translates them
into meaning.
• It is very effective and efficient because you get
answers to your problems and sub-problems
without being subjective.
 Statistical tools…Cont’d
• Statistics minimizes subjectivity, if not to assure
complete objectivity.
• To ensure objectivity, the choice of statistical tool is
crucial.
• The choice of statistical tool for analysis of your
data depends upon the questions for which your
research was designed and the type of data you
collected.
• The nature of your research problems and
questions dominates all other consideration in
choosing statistical tool to use.
 Statistical tools…Cont’d
• For example: If the problem looks for
relationship, the statistical test should measure
relationships.

• For more complex research problems a more

sophisticated and complex statistical test will be
more appropriate as in multivariate analysis.
 Two Branches of Statistics
• Based on function. One function describes what
the data look like, thus it is called descriptive
statistics. The other does not describe but to infer
and is called inferential statistics.
• Parametric and non-parametric statistics. These
are the two main types that divide statistics.
• Parametric test are usually used for data that are of
interval or ratio levels of measurements while non-
parametric test do not always depend on some
specific type of score distribution like the normal
curve.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
 Measurement
• Measurement is “the assignment of numbers
to observations [or responses] according to
some set of rules”

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 Measurement Levels
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio

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 Nominal-Scaled Responses
• Numbers forming a nominal scale are no more
than labels used solely to identify different
categories of responses
• Example: What is your sex?
– Male
– Female

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 Nominal-Scaled Responses (Cont’d)
• Which one of the following media influences
your purchasing decisions the most?
– Television
– Radio
– Newspapers
– Magazines
– Internet

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 Ordinal-Scaled Responses
• An ordinal scale is more powerful than a
nominal scale in that the numbers possess the
property of rank order
• How long do you spend reading newspapers
on a typical weekday?
– Less than 5 minutes
– 5 minutes to less than 15 minutes
– 15 minutes to less than 30 minutes
– 30 minutes or more

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 Interval-Scaled Responses
• An interval scale has all the properties of an
ordinal scale and the differences between the
scale values can be meaningfully interpreted

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 Interval-Scaled Responses (Cont’d)
• How likely are you to buy a new automobile within the
next six months?
(Please check the most appropriate category.)
Will definitely not buy _____
(1)
Extremely unlikely _____
(2)
Unlikely _____
(3)
Likely _____
(4)
Extremely likely _____
(5)
Will definitely buy _____
(6)
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 Ratio-Scaled Responses
• Ratio scales possess all the properties of an
interval scale and the ratios of numbers on
these scales have meaningful interpretations
• What is your annual income before taxes?
$______
• How far is your workplace from your home?
_____ miles

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5.1. Presentation and Analysis of Research Findings
• At this point, collected data should be
summarized and the statistical treatment used
should be presented.
• Results of statistical test should be presented in
simple, clear-cut, unbiased way.
• presentation and analysis of findings should
follow the logic of the problem or objectives.
 Discussion

• It is expected that discussion should offer explanations

why such results came out with regard to results of
inferential statistics.
• Findings may confirm or reject findings previously
made.
• Discussion may also be used to compare the results
with those done in previous researches.
• Presentation of findings especially regarding the
use of descriptive statistics can be made clear
through the use of tables and figures.
• Specifically, graphs, tables, and diagrams could
be used.
Discussion…Cont’d
Discussion and analysis of findings should
include:
• Meaning and significance of what has been found;
• Inferences that can be drawn from the findings;
• Implications and relevance of the findings;
• Explanation of differences of the study from other
investigation;
• Unique features of the study; and suggestion from
improving the methodology procedures.
• Limitations of the study;
Presentation…Cont’d
1. In social Science Research Findings
• The collected data and the statistical treatment
applied to them are presented in simple and
neutral manner and language.
• Emphasis: Use the research problem and sub-
problems as your guide in the sequencing of the
presentation and analysis of the results.
• The presentation must also be anchored on the
hypothesis formulated.
Presentation…Cont’d

• Avoid those sounding repetitive and redundant;

• Avoid textual presentation that only repeat what is in the
table.

• Be factual, objective, and logical in your analyses of data:

1. Avoid being subjective and opinionated.
2. Make careful linking in your analysis with those findings
you discovered in your review of related literature.
3. Facts, not opinions, should prevail even if this would mean
running counter to the hypotheses posited.
Presentation…Cont’d
2. Technical Development Research Findings
• summarize the collected data and the statistical
treatment applied to them if any.
• The results of test conducted should be
presented and described in clear and
straightforward manner.
• The presentation must be geared to the
objectives of research.
Presentation…Cont’d
• Presentation of findings especially regarding the
use of descriptive statistics can be made clear
using graphs and tables.
• When development of instructional materials
results and validation,
• however, diagrams, photographs, and other
forms of graphics can be used to give a clear
picture of the project as in the case of prototypes,
fabrications, improvisation, and innovations
detailing the project procedures and simulations
must be presented and analyzed until the final
and perfected output has been achieved.
Presentation…Cont’d

• In addition, problems encountered and how

these were resolved must also be presented.
• If the research project is compared to what
existing or to standard measures, results of such
comparisons must be presented.
 5.2.Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.2.1.Summary 
• The summary puts together the salient findings of the
investigation.
• Therefore, you should not include just anything.
• reminded always of the problems posted at the start of the
research report.
• You are not expected to give explanations or posit inferences in
this section.

• Since this is the last chapter of the report, it should contain an

overview of the whole investigation.
• This chapter should not contain any new information not covered
by the research, thus it must encapsulate the research by going
over main points.
 5.2.2.Conclusions…Cont’d
2. Conclusion
The conclusions as the word implies, is an idea or
concept extracted from the findings and the results
linked with the problems and sub-problems
investigated.
• Drawing conclusions from the results of the findings
is one of the most difficult things to accomplish after
the research has been completed.
• Generalization not supported by results and findings
should be avoided.
• Conclusions drawn should be in light of the
problems raised and hypotheses stated.
 5.2.2. Conclusions…Cont’d
• Since hypotheses are tentative answers to the
research problems, conclusions should confirm
such hypotheses.
• Be sure that conclusions are supported by the
findings.
• Technical/Developmental research projects can
draw conclusions on the basis of objectives set
and presented.
 5.2.2. Conclusions…Cont’d
Some pitfalls in drawing conclusions:
• Wrong generalization.
• This happens when sample is not representative of the
populations.
• Partiality. Veracity/reality/actuality/genuineness of data
gathered in a survey may be questionable.
• Sometimes respondents do not give correct information
to protect their name or the organization they represent.
• To avoid this, supplement the data gathered with
additional observation or interviews.
• Wrong inferences. Giving sweeping/comprhensive
conclusions by applying a general rule to specific cases
 5.2.3. Recommendations…Cont’d
3. Recommendations
• The recommendations should focus on the problem
investigated, findings, and hypotheses tested.
• Therefore, it means that recommendations without
basis should not be given.
• Recommendations not supported by evidence
should be avoided.
5.2.3. Recommendations…Cont’d
• Recommendations should be geared toward
action.
• Recommendations and implications should be
stated leading towards improving education
process, practical utility, process and system
improvement as well as products and services
improvement.
• These show the circular concept of research when
branching springs out of the current investigation.
Suggestions for further research end this section.
 Characteristics of a research proposal
Since the research proposal is somewhat a “sales
talk” to buy support for the conduct of the
research, whether it is to be funded or not, it
should fulfill the following:
• It must be convincing,
• It must be strong enough to rationalize its
conduct,
• It must communicate with the language that is
simple, clear and precise.
• It is straight forward, uncomplicated, and is not
literary production, and
• Thoughts are clearly organized.
 Component Parts of a proposal

• The component parts of the research proposal

are the first three chapters of research report.

• The proposal formats could follow the same

classification we use for social science and
technical developmental research.
 a)Social science Research

The research proposal outline will have the following format:

Chapter 1: The problem and its Background
• Introduction
• Background of the study
• Statement of the problem
• Significance of the study
• Scope and delimitation
Chapter 2: Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
• Review of related literature and studies
• Conceptual framework
• Research paradigm
• Research hypothesis/es
• Definition of terms
Chapter 3: Research Methodology or Operational Framework
• Research design
• Sources of data
• Procedures
• Data gathering instruments/tools
• Statistical techniques used
 b)Technical Developmental Research
The research proposal outline will have the following format:
Chapter 1: Introduction
• Background of the study
• Project objectives
• Significance of the study
• Scope and delimitation
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework/Review of Related Literature
• Review of related literature and studies
• Conceptual framework
• Definition of terms
Chapter 3: Research Methodology or Operational Framework
• Project design
• Project development
• Testing and operating procedures
• Evaluation and Validation
 Major Contents of Academic Proposal
The research proposal format commonly used by
many academic institutions could be summarized as
follows:
a)Preliminary pages:
1. Cover Page,
2. Title page,
2.1.Title of the project
2.2. Name of research proponent
2.3. Address (Proponent and Institution)
 Major Contents of Academic Proposal…Cont’d
b) Main body of the research proposal:
Chapter I: Introduction:
– Background of the study,
– Statement of the problem/research objectives
(what do you want to investigate?),
– Significance of the study (this refers to the
contribution of the study),
– Definition of terms (contextual and operational
meanings of the variables of the study),
– Scope and delimitation (inclusive frame of
reference as well as procedural limits of the
study).
 Proposal Main body…Cont’d
Chapter II: Review of Related Literature
2.1. Conceptual framework
Chapter III: Research Methodology
• How will you carry out the research process?
• What will be the research design?
• How do you intend to gather the data?
• What is your unit of analysis?
• Who are your Participants/subjects?
• What is the sample size?
• How will you organize, process and analyze your
data?
 Proposal Main body…Cont’d
c) Additional Important Pages:
• Work plan (includes a brief description in chronological order of
each activity to be undertaken in conducting the study, the starting
date and completion date),
• Budgetary outlay/Finance needed,
• Human power requirement (specifies the number of staff needed
to rationalize the proposal budget in conducting the research),
• Materials (stationery materials and equipments) needed
• Time schedule/Gant chart
• Expected output (refers to the products of the investigation which
would contribute and increase of the stock of knowledge),
• Bibliography/References (list of sources of the literature in the
study) in the form of either Harvard style, or APA style or
Vancouver style as per preferred, and
• Annexes/Appendix to be attached.
Non-Academic Proposals
• Non-academic proposals could be developed in
two ways:
1.Technical proposal submitted in response to
Terms of Reference (TOR) dispatched from
organizations/project holders.
2. Concept note developed and grows up to
technical proposal step by step in response to
TOR dispatched from project
holders/organizations.
>
Concept Note/Paper
Definition:
• Concept note/paper is a summary document that
could be extended usually from 3 to 5 pages.
• Concept note/paper contains the following
parts:
1. Introduction and background,
2. Purpose (objectives: general and specific) and
3.Methodology (sample and sampling techniques,
data sources, data collection tools, data analysis
methods).
Terms of Reference (TOR)
Definition:
• TOR is a page or two pages document that tries
to address the call for a need by the project
holder/organization to carry out/conduct a
research/study or evaluation or survey by the
researchers/consultants after submitting either
concept note/paper or technical proposal.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Contents of TOR

Possible contents of TOR are:

1. Introduction and background,
2. Purpose/objectives,
3. Significance of the study,
4. Scope of the work,
5. Procedures and methods of work,
6. Qualification and experiences of the
researchers/consultants,
7. Time schedule/Gantt chart, and
8. Budget and its breakdown.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
++++++++ End of the Course VPD 202++++++++++++++