The Cell Cycle

THE CHROMOSOME
All living things contain what we call the genetic
material that serves as the set of instructions that direct
the activities and functions of the cells. These genetic
materials, also known as the deoxyribonucleic acid
or DNA, are passed on from one generation to the next
to ensure the continuity of life.
In eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles), the DNA are
bound with proteins and are organized as beads on
strings to form chromosomes
 Thenumber of
chromosomes in a cell is
characteristic of the
species to which it
belongs. For example,
humans have 46
chromosomes while rice
have 12. Table 1
summarizes the
chromosome numbers of
some common organisms.
The Cell Cycle
The chromosomes of a cell change form as the
cell transitions from one stage to another in a
typical cell cycle.
A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in
a cell as it grows and divides. A cell spends most
of its time in what is called interphase, and during
this time it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and
prepares for cell division
The Cell Cycle
Two stages of cell cycle:
1. the interphase where the chromosomes are
long and extended and are also referred to as
chromatin, and
2. the cell division phase where the
chromosomes become condensed or thickened
(Figure 2)
INTERPHASE
 refers to the period that follows one cell
division and precedes another.
 During this stage, the cell does not divide; it
merely grows.
 The chromosome doubles or replicates itself
because the DNA molecule contained in the
chromosome produces an exact copy of itself
INTERPHASE
 During
interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct
membrane bound organelle.
 One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus.
 On the other hand, the chromosomes cannot be clearly seen.
 They appear as an irregular mass that is grainy in
appearance because the DNA they contain are stretched out
thinly in the nucleus. This facilitates the replication of DNA
during the S phase.
THREE SUBSTAGES OF INTERPHASE

1. G1 or first gap period

2. S or synthesis stage
3. G2 or second gap period
G1 or FIRST GAP PERIOD
 The stage from the formation of a new cell until it
begins to replicate its DNA is called the first gap
period or G1, during which time the cell grows
initially.
 This stage is characterized by protein and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis. RNA, which is
synthesized based on the DNA, is then used to
synthesize proteins.
S or SYNTHESIS STAGE
The middle stage of interphase, called the
synthesis stage or S, is the period of DNA
synthesis or replication.
The chromosomes are duplicated in preparation
for the next cell division
G2 or SECOND GAP PERIOD
The second gap period or G2, falls
between the S period and the next cell
division or M (mitosis or meiosis) phase.
G2 represents a period of rapid cell growth
to prepare for cell division.
CELL DIVISION
is the process that increases the number
of cells.
In eukaryotic cells, there are two types of
cell division:
1. mitosis and
2. meiosis.
1. MITOSIS
 Thistype of cell division produces two identical cells with
the same number of chromosomes. Mitosis is divided into
four stages. prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase (PMAT)
 (produces two diploids (2n) somatic cells that are
genetically identical to each other and the original parent
cell).
 The major event in cell division is the splitting of the
nucleus (karyokinesis) followed by cytoplasmic division
(cytokinesis).
PROPHASE
 occupies over half of mitosis.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleoli may still be present.
 The chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of
repeated coiling.
 At this stage, each chromosome is made up of two identical
sister chromatids as a consequence of replication of DNA
during the S phase.
 The two chromatids produced from one chromosome are still
attached at one point, called the centromere.
PROPHASE
 The centromere may divide the chromosome into the
shorter arms, also called the p arms (‘p’ stands for
petite in French) and the longer q arms.
 Ifthe chromosomes are stained using Giemsa,
alternating dark and light regions will appear.
 These are the heterochromatin and euchromatin,
respectively. The heterochromatin are more coiled
and dense than the euchromatin (Figure 3).
METAPHASE
 The nuclear membrane has disappeared while the
highly coiled chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate, an imaginary plane equidistant between the
cell’s two poles.
 Spindle fibers are also formed. Each fiber binds to
a protein called the kinetochore at the centromere
of each sister chromatid of the chromosome
ANAPHASE
Itis the shortest stage of mitosis
The paired centromeres of each chromosome
separate towards the opposite poles of the cells
as they are pulled by the spindle fibers through
their kinetochores. This liberates the sister
chromatids. Each chromatid is now regarded as a
full-fledged chromosome and is only made up of
one sister chromatid
TELOPHASE
 Thechromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the
spindle.
 Theystart to uncoil and become indistinct under the light
microscope.
 A new nuclear membrane forms around them while the
spindle fibers disappear.
 Thereis also cytokinesis or the division of the cytoplasm to
form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis.
CYTOKINESIS
The final cellular division form two new cells. In
plants a cell plate forms along the line of the
metaphase plate; in animals, there is a
constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then
enters interphase - the interval between mitotic
divisions
MEIOSIS
The number of chromosomes normally
remains the same within the species. It does
not double or triple for every generation.
This suggests that a different kind of cell
division must take place in an individual.
MEIOSIS
This kind of cell division is called meiosis, from
a Greek word which means “to make smaller.”
 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number in
half.
It takes place in plants and animals whenever
gametes, or sex cells, are formed through the
process called gametogenesis.
Meiosis is a special type of cell division where the
cell undergoes two rounds of cell division to
produce four daughter cells, each with half the
chromosome number as the original parent cell
and with a unique set of genetic material as a
result of exchange of chromosome segments
during the process of crossing over.
The first round of meiotic division, also
known as meiosis I, consists of four
stages: prophase I, metaphase I,
anaphase I, and telophase I. Prophase I of
meiosis I, unlike its counterpart in mitosis,
is more elaborate and should be
understood well in order to grasp the
mechanisms of heredity
STAGE A: PROPHASE I. Meiosis starts with this
stage and includes the following substages:
1. LEPTOTENE. Each chromosome is made up of
two long threads of sister chromatids as a result
of replication during the S phase of the cell cycle.
2. ZYGOTENE. The chromosomes begin to pair
off. Pairs of chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes, and this pairing
process is exact.
3. PACHYTENE. The chromosomes contract due to
repeated coiling.
 Crossing over takes place during this stage where a
segment of a sister chromatid of one chromosome is
exchanged with the same segment of the sister chromatid
of the homologous chromosome through the formation of a
cross-linkage of the segments called a chiasma (Figure 4).
 After crossing over, the sister chromatids of each
chromosome may no longer be identical with each other
based on the genetic material they contain
4. DIPLOTENE. The chromosomes
begin to uncoil.
5. DIAKINESIS. The paired
chromosomes disperse in the nucleus.
STAGE B: METAPHASE I. The paired
chromosomes arrange themselves along
the equatorial plate.
STAGE C: ANAPHASE I
 Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of
the chromosomes.
 The homologous chromosomes separate from each
other completely and start their movement toward
the poles of the cells as they are pulled by the
spindle fibers.
 As the centromere of each chromosome does not
divide, the sister chromatids remain together.
STAGE D: TELOPHASE I.
 This is the stage when the chromosomes reach their
respective poles.
 Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed.
 Each cell now has only half the chromosome number
because only one chromosome from each pair goes to
the daughter cell. This is called the haploid condition,
in contrast to the diploid condition at the beginning of
meiosis I where each chromosome pair is intact.
Telophase I is followed by interphase II
 Note that each chromosome still has two sister chromatids;
it is therefore necessary for the cells to undergo another
round of division.
 The second meiotic division, also known as meiosis II, is
mitotic in nature and consists of the following stages:
prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II;
these stages are identical with the mitotic stages. The
results are four cells, two from each daughter cell from
meiosis I, with one half the diploid chromosome number and
with only one sister chromatid for each chromosome. Figure
5 shows the different stages of meiosis in the squash anther.
MEIOSIS II separates each chromosome
into two chromatids.
Four Phases of Meiosis II
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
PROPHASE II
The DNA does not replicate.
The nuclear envelope disintegrates
making the chromosomes visible.
METAPHASE II
the chromosomes align at the equatorial
plate of the cell
ANAPHASE II
centromeres divide and sister chromatids
pulled separately to each pole.
TELOPHASE II
the cell division is complete.
One parent cell produces four daughter cells.
Daughter cells have half the number of
chromosomes found in the original parent cell
and because of crossing over; these four
daughter cells are genetically different from
each other
Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:
 the exchange of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes during Meiosis I
 the random alignment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes in Meiosis I
 random alignment of the sister chromatids at
Meiosis II
Significance of Meiosis:
1. Meiosis is responsible for the formation of sex cells
or gametes that are responsible for sexual
reproduction.
2. It activates the genetic information for the
development of sex cells
3. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes
by halving the same. This is important because the
chromosome number doubles after fertilization.
Significance of Meiosis:
4. In this process independent assortment of maternal
and paternal chromosomes takes place. Thus the
chromosomes and the traits controlled by them are
reshuffled.
5. The genetic mutation occurs due to irregularities in cell
division by meiosis. The beneficial mutations are carried
on by natural selection.
6. Crossing-over produces a new combination of traits
and variations.
ACTIVITY 1A: THE CELL CYCLE
1. What is a series of events that cells go through as they
grow and divide?
2. What is the longest stage of the cell cycle called?
3. During what phase of the cell cycle do mitosis and
cytokinesis occur?
4. During what phase of the cell cycle does cell division
occur?
5. During what phase of the cell cycle is DNA replicated?
ACTIVITY 1A: THE CELL CYCLE
6. During what phase of the cell cycle does the cell grow?
7. During what phase of the cell cycle does the cell prepare
for mitosis?
8. Put the following stages of mitosis in order: anaphase,
prophase, metaphase, and telophase.
9. Put the following in stages of the cell cycle in order: G2, S,
G1, M.
10.Put the following actions in order: DNA replication, the cell
grows, cell division, the cell prepares for mitosis
ACTIVITY 1B: COMPARING MITOSIS
AND MEIOSIS

Objective: Compare and contrast mitosis

from meiosis.
Directions: The following are some
concepts on mitosis and meiosis. Read
them thoroughly and complete the tasks
that follow.