 SUBJECT:- contributor personality

development

 Project TITLE :- identify a real contributor

as marie curie

Created by:- Course code :- 4340002

Rana hitanshu :- 216170306068
 Outlines :-
1. Introduce of Albert Einstein
2. Biography of Albert Einstein
3. Scientific Tenure
4. Nobel Prize
 1. Introduce of Albert Einstein
• Albert Einstein , born Germany in 14 March 1879, was a world-renowned theoretical physicist
known for his theory of relativity and the mass-energy equation E = mc² .

• Einstein made several contributions, including special relativity (1905) and the theory of
general relativity (1916). His other contributions include relativistic universe, capillary
motion, critical shadow, problems of statistical mechanics, Brownian motion of molecules ,
mutational probability of molecules, quantum theory of monoatomic gas, thermal
properties of light with low radiation density, theory of radiation, Includes unified field
theory and the geometrization of physics. Einstein wrote more than fifty research papers
and books apart from science. In 1999, Time magazine declared the man of the century.
According to one survey, he was considered the greatest scientist of all time.

• Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers. On 5 December 2014, universities and
archives announced the display of over 30,000 unique Einstein documents and letters.
Einstein's intellectual achievements and uniqueness have made the word "Einstein"
synonymous with "intelligent”.

• He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his discoveries in theoretical physics,
particularly photoelectric emission.
 2. Biography of Albert Einsteinnd
• Albert Einstein was born into a Jewish family in Württemberg, Germany. His father
was an engineer and salesman. His mother was Pauline Einstein. Although
Einstein initially had difficulty speaking, he was not very good at studies. His
mother tongue was German and later he also learned Italian and English.

• In 1880 his family moved to Munich, where his father and uncle founded the
Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical
equipment . And it also provided lighting for the first time at Munich's Oktoberfest
fair. His family did not follow Jewish religious traditions, and for this reason
Einstein was able to attend Catholic school. At the behest of his mother, he
learned to play the Sarangi. He did not like it and later left it, but later he used to
take great pleasure in Mozart's Sarangi music.

• In 1894, his father's company could not get a contract to supply electric lighting for the city of
Munich. Because of which he had to sell his company due to the loss. In search of business, the
Einstein family moved to Italy , settling first in Milan and a few months later in the city of Pavia. Even
after the family moved to Pavia, Einstein remained in Munich to complete his studies. In late
December 1894, he traveled to Italy to visit his family in Pavia. During his time in Italy he wrote a
short essay with the title "Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".
• In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance exam for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School (later Edenzhaus
Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the
examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the
Polytechnic School, he attended the Argovian Cantonal School (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland in 1895 and 1896
to complete his secondary schooling. While living with Professor Joost Winteler's family, he fell in love with
Winteler's daughter, Marie.

• Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old Serbian named Mileva Marić , also enrolled in the Polytechnic School this year.
She was the only woman among the six students in the Mathematics and Physics section of the Diploma in Teaching
course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić 's friendship developed into romance, and they read books
together on extracurricular physics, in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein passed
exams in maths and physics and was awarded the Federal Teaching Diploma.

• Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific and
150 non-scientific research papers. In his 1965 lecture, Oppenheimer noted that Einstein's early writings were
riddled with errors, which had delayed their publication for nearly ten years: "A man whose errors took a long time
to correct, How great would that be". In addition to his own work, he also collaborated with other scientists,
including Bose Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator, and many others.
 3. Scientific tenure
 Thermodynamic instability and statistical physics

• Einstein's first paper was on "capillary attraction", submitted to Annalen der Physik in
1900.This was published in 1901 with the title "Inferences from Capillarity
Phenomena". Two papers (on thermodynamics) published in 1902–1903 attempted to
explain the nuclear phenomenon through statistical means. The same paper, The 1905
paper on Brownian motion laid the foundation for a paper that showed that Brownian
motion could be used as solid evidence for the existence of molecules. His research in
1903 and 1904 focused primarily on the diffusion phenomenon of finite atomic size. be
Theory of relativity
related to the effect of

 Theory of relativity

• He expressed the theory of relativity . Which according to Hermann Minkowski is

known for the generalization of invariance from space to space-time. Other theories
that were formulated by Einstein and later proved to be correct include the
equivalence principle and the principle of asymptotic generalization of quantum
numbers.
 Theory of relativity and E=mc²

• Einstein's paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" was completed on 30

June 1905 and published on 26 September of the same year. This allows for a
reconciliation between Maxwell's equations of electricity and magnetism and the
theory of mechanics, after a major change in mechanics near the speed of light . This
later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.

• Which concluded that matter moving in the space-time frame appears to slow down
and compress (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the
observer. The paper also argued that the idea of ​the luminiferous ether (the foremost
theory in physics at the time) was superfluous.

• In his paper on mass-energy equivalence, Einstein derived E=mc² from the equations of
special relativity. Einstein's research into relativity from 1905 remained controversial
for many years, although it was accepted by many leading physicists such as Max
Planck .
 Photons and energy quanta

• In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself was composed of localized particles
(quanta). Einstein's light quanta hypothesis was rejected by almost all physicists,
including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. With Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on
the photoelectric effect , and the measurement of Compton scattering, this hypothesis
became universally accepted in 1919.

• Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency (f) is associated with a collection of Photons and energy
photons each of energy (hf) (where h is Planck's constant). He didn't elaborate further, quanta
because he wasn't sure how particles were related to waves. But he suggested that this
hypothesis could be explained by some experimental results, which he later specifically
called the photoelectric effect.
 Physical cosmology

• Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He
found that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting
or expanding. Since observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time,
Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, for the field equations to allow him
to predict a static universe. In these years the modified field equations predicted a stable
universe of closed curvature according to Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle. This
model is known as Einstein's world or Einstein's stable universe.

• After the discovery of the nebula recession in 1929 by Edwin Hubble, Einstein abandoned his
static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamical models of the universe, the
Friedman–Einstein universe of 1931 [199] [200] and the Einstein of 1932 . de Sitter universe. In
each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was
"theoretically unsatisfactory in any case".

• In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in
his later years as his "biggest blunder". Astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this
claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated.
 4.Nobel Prizes
• In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for
his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers
to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic
Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of
Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence
by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his
theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate
in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications
which are being rigorously examined at the present time".

• The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein

Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award
in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It
was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's
70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $15,000,which
was later reduced to $5,000. The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which
consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Wey of the Institute for Advanced
Study, which administers the award.
• It was long reported that in accord with the divorce settlement, the Nobel Prize money had been deposited in a Swiss
bank account for his wife Mileva Marić to invest for herself and their two sons, while she could only use the capital by
agreement with Einstein. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006 shows that he invested much of it in
the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression. Ultimately, however, he paid Marić more
money than he received with the prize.

• On November 12, 1913, Einstein was granted full membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences. On March 28,
1933, he resigned membership, explaining in a letter to the academy that he did not want to be associated with the
Prussian government of the time.

• On November 12, 1919, the University of Rostock awarded an honorary doctorate of medicine (Dr. med. h.c.) to
Einstein, on the occasion of its 500th anniversary and following a suggestion by Moritz Schlick. This is the only
honorary doctorate he received from a German university.

• In 1921, Einstein accepted a Doctor of Science degree from the University of Manchester. In addition to receiving the
degree, Einstein gave a lecture in Manchester on June 9.

• In 1925 the Royal Society awarded Einstein the Copley Medal.

• In 1926, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.
 7.Legacy and Honors
• Einstein, who was German by birth but who renounced his citizenship. Einstein was out of Germany when Hitler seized
power in 1933, and he never returned to his homeland. Two years earlier the book A hundred authors against Einstein
had been published in Leipzig, of which he said: “If I were wrong, one professor would have been enough”. And in May
1933, torchbearers in public book burnings put his books to the flames, along with those of many other authors,
particularly Jews.

• There is a tendency to believe that Einstein’s discoveries were only theoretical in nature; he is, unquestionably, the
supreme theoretical physicist. However, his discoveries have also generated numerous practical applications, as every
conceptual revolution is always followed by major technological advances –a point worth noting by all those who insist
that research should be essentially ‘practical’. The “very revolutionary” work on the photoelectric effect in 1905,
Einstein’s great contribution to the nascent field of quantum physics and the reason for his Nobel prize, has been the
basis for uncountable applications. But, in the popular imagination, Einstein has always been linked to relativity. In 1905
(his Annus Mirabilis) he developed his Special Relativity, which becomes essential when very large speeds (comparable
to the speed of light) are involved, for which Newtonian mechanics is no longer adequate. Its consequences (setting
aside E=mc²) are far-reaching, as relativity modifies the absolute and separate character of Newtonian space and time
and merges them into a single spacetime.
• As noted in 1908 by Hermann Minkowski, Einstein’s former teacher at the Zurich Polytechnic, “only a kind
of union of the two will maintain an independent reality”. Also important, the very idea of ‘force’, essential
in Newton’s mechanics– would yield in favour of that of ‘field’. The term ‘relativity’, however, is rather
unfortunate: the theory highlights what is invariable under certain conditions –the physical laws, which
therefore (and fortunately), are not ‘relative’. The Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset –who accompanied
Einstein during his visit to Spain in 1923– immediately noticed this aspect. Einstein himself occasionally
used Invariantentheorie, but it was already too late to change the name ‘relativity’, as it was already
established.

• Nevertheless, the towering work of Einstein -the centenary of which we are celebrating- is his General
Relativity (GR) of 1915. Conceptually, the GR equations are simple: geometry = matter. In other words, the
distribution of matter determines the curvature of spacetime: it may be said that gravity is the dynamics of
space-time. As a theory of the gravitational field, GR is the basis of any cosmological or astronomical
consideration; for example, it accounts for Mercury’s anomalous perihelion, which cannot be explained by
Newtonian mechanics. But it also has unexpected consequences, ranging from philosophy, as it invalidates
the Kantian apriorism about the supposed Euclidean nature of space (and in passing calls into question any
other a priori knowledge), to other more mundane areas: the precision of the GPS would be impossible
without GR. In fact, if our devices were to indicate the name of the scientist whose discoveries permit their
operation, Einstein’s name would be everywhere.
 8.Conclution:-
• Albert Einstein was one of the most brilliant and influential scientists in history. His contributions to physics
revolutionized our understanding of the universe and laid the foundation for modern physics. His theory of relativity,
particularly the equation E=mc², transformed our understanding of energy, matter, and the interplay between them.

• Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, further solidifying his
reputation as a groundbreaking scientist. Beyond his scientific achievements, Einstein was also known for his
commitment to pacifism, social justice, and human rights. He used his platform to advocate for peace, nuclear
disarmament, and the formation of a global government.

• Throughout his life, Einstein displayed immense curiosity, creativity, and a willingness to challenge conventional
wisdom. His ideas continue to shape our understanding of the natural world and inspire scientists and thinkers to this
day. Albert Einstein's legacy extends far beyond the realm of physics, making him an iconic figure in the history of
science and a symbol of intellectual curiosity and innovation.