NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

NERVOUS SYSTEM
 INTRODUCTION

• As you know, the functions of the

organs/organ systems in our body must be
coordinated to maintain homeostasis.

• Coordination is the process through which

two or more organs interact and
complement the functions of one another.
Difference between Neural & Endocrine coordination

NEURAL SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

NERVE IMPULSE INTEGRATIVE HORMONE

SYSTEMS

TARGET ORGAN TARGET ORGAN

 POINT TO POINT CONNECTION  POINT TO POINT CONNECTION

 FAST SPEED SERVICE  SLOW SPEED SERVICE
 RESPONSE-  RESPONSE-
QUICK B U T SHORT LIVED SLOW B U T LONG LIVED
 MESSAGE DISTRIBUTION-  MESSAGE DISTRIBUTION-
E X A CT LOCATION WIDESPREAD
LOCATION
Difference between Neural & Endocrine coordination

• In our body the neural system and the endocrine

system jointly coordinate and integrate all the
activities of the organs so that they function in
a synchronised fashion.

• The neural system provides an organised

network of point-to-point connections for a quick
coordination.

• The endocrine system provides chemical

integration through hormones.
 NEURAL SYSTEM

• The neural system of all animals is composed of

highly specialised cells called neurons which
can detect, receive and transmit different kinds
of stimuli.
Detect – Sensitivity
Receive – Excitability
Transmit – Conductivity
 NEURAL ORGANISATION
The neural organisation is very
simple in lower vertebrates. For
example, in Hydra it is composed of
network of neurons.

The neural system is

better organised in insects
where a brain is present
along with a number of
ganglia and neural tissues).
NEURAL ORGANISATION

The vertebrates have a

more developed neural
system .
 HUMAN NEU RAL SYSTEM
N E U R A L SYSTEM

CENT RA L NEURAL SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NEURAL SYSTEM

SPINAL CRANIAL &

BRAIN
CORD SPINAL NERVES
SITE OF A F F E RE N T
INFORMATION (SENSORY)&
PROCESSING EFFERENT(MOTOR)
AND CONTROL NERVE FIBERS

SOMATIC NE U RAL AUTONOMIC N E U RA L

S YS T E M (SNS) S YS T E M (ANS)
Sensory/Afferent

CNS ORGAN RELAY IMPULSES RELAY IMPULSES

BETWEEN CNS & BETWEEN CNS &
Motor/Efferent
SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE
 HUMAN NEU RAL SYSTEM

AUTONOMIC NEURAL SYSTEM (ANS)

EFFERENT(MOTOR) AFFERENT(SENSORY)

SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
N.S. N.S.

R E LAY IMPULSES
FROM CNS TO
SMOOTH MUSCLE
 NERVOUS TISSUE
• Origin of nervous system – Ectodermal
 Nervous system is composed of nervous tissue.

Nervous tissue

Neuron / Nerve cell Neuroglial / Glial cells

These are supporting cells which forms
packing substance around neurons.

CNS PNS
1. Astrocytes 1. Schwann cells
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microgliocytes
 NERVOUS TISSUE

• • • • •
• • •
• CNS=NUCLEI
• PNS=GANGLIA
• •
• • • •
•
• • •
• • • •
• • • •
CNS= TRACT
PNS= NERVE
• • • •
• • • • •
• • • •
• •
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF CNS

1. ASTROCYTE
 Ectodermal in origin.
PARTICIPATES IN
BLOOD BRAIN
BARRIER
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF CNS

2. OLIGODENDROCYTE
 Ectodermal in origin.
FORMATION OF
MYELIN SHEATH
IN CNS
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF CNS

3. MICROGLIAL CELLS
 Mesodermal in origin.
HELPS IN
PHAGOCYTOSIS
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF PNS

1. SCHWANN CELLS
 Ectodermal in origin.
FORMATION OF
MYELIN SHEATH
IN PNS
NEURON (NERVE CELL)

 Structural and functional unit of neural

system.

 Neuron is a microscopic structure.

SENSITIVITY,
EXCITABILITY,
CONDUCTIVITY.

 Neuron is
composed of
three major
parts

(i) Cell body /

Cyton /
Soma /
Perikaryon
(ii) Dendrites
(iii) Axon
1. CYTON / C E L L BODY
eptors
NISSL’s GRANULES It contains centrally located
nucleus in neuroplasm.
NEUROFIBRIL Irregularly shaped.

Nissl’s
CYTO N RER + Clusters
granule :- of free
Ribosomes
• Protein synthesis
• Found only in Dendron &
Cyton.
NOTE :- • Proteins are used in
Centriole :- metabolism and repairing.
It is present
Neurofibrils:-
before birth.
• Microtubule and
So division
microfilament like
is possible
structure.
in neuron,
Found in Dendron, Cyton
but it is
and Axon.
absent in
• Helps in internal
neuron after
conduction of nerve
the birth.
impulse.
 2. DENDRON / DENDRITES

rotra
mNitEteUr RlikOTRANRSe MIpTtoTrEs R
RECEPTOR
NUCLEUS DENDRON

NEUROFIBRIL

NISSL’s GRANULE

Highly branched structure,

Branches = Dendrites,
Afferent part
(Centripetal conduction)
Cytoplasm is
dendroplasm Nissl’s
granules
&
Neurofibrils are present.
 3. AXON / NERVE FIBRE

AXON HILLOCK OR
SPIKE INITIATION ZONE Longest part of neuron
(TRIGGER ZONE)
It is also called nerve fibre
SCHWANN CE LL
NUCLEUS It is the efferent fibre / part
NODE OF
RANVIER Centrifugal conduction
A
X Main functional and structural part
O
N
AXOPLASM Mainly neurofibrils & mitochondria +

AXOLEMMA Action potential travels through this

MYELIN
SHEATH Nissl’s granules are absent
NEURILEMMA
TELODEND
Terminal part is called telodendria
RIA
SYNAPTIC K N O B (SYNAPTIC VESICLES)
TYPES OF NEURON
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF POLES

(1) APOLAR / NON POLAR NEURON

1. No definite dendron /axon

2.
Cell process are either
absent or if present are
not differentiated in axon
and Dendron.

3.
Nerve impulse radiates in
all directions
CY T 4. E.g.:- Hydra,
C YTO
N Amacrine
cell of
retina
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF POLES

(2) UNIPOLAR NEURON

1. Single process arises from

cyton.

2. Single process is always

axon.
AXON

3. E.g.:- EMBRYONIC
NEURON

TO
N
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF POLES

(3) BIPOLAR NEURON 1. Two process arises

from cyton.

2. One is Dendron
and another is
DENDRON axon.

CYTO N

AXON

3. E.g.:- RETINA
CYT N OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM
O
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF POLES

(4) MULTIPOLAR NEURON

DENDRON
1. Neuron which have one axon &
many dendrons.

CYTO N
2. E.g.:-
Most of neurons
of vertebrates.
(cerebral cortex )
ON AXON
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF POLES

(5) PSEUDOUNIPOLAR NEURON

CYTO N 1. Nerve cell has only

axon but a small process
develop from axon which act
as dendron.

2. E.g.:-
DORSAL ROOT
AXON GANGLIA OF
SPINAL CORD
 ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION

NEURON

INTER NEURON
SENSORY OR MOTOR
NEURON INTERNUNCIAL NEURON
OR
INTER CONNECTING
NEURON

SENSORY CNS
ORGAN • SMALLEST NEURON
• UMNYELINATED EFFECTOR
CNS NEURON ORGAN
• HIGHLY BRANCHED
NEURON
ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION

MOTOR
NEURON

SENSORY
INTER
NEURON
NEURON
ON THE BASIS OF T Y P E OF NEUROTRANSMITTER

NEURON

EXCITATORY / STIMULATORY INHIBITORY

Acetylcholine (Ach) GABA

Nor-epinephrine / Nor-adrenaline / Dopamine

Sympathetein
Glycine

Serotonin
MYELINOGENESIS (MYELIN SHEATH FORMATION)
 Axon is covered by a layer of phospholipid
(SPHINGOMYELIN) which is called myelin sheath
or medullary sheath.
 Myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator as it
prevents the leakage of ions across the
membrane.
 There are two types of nerve fibres :-
(1) Myelinated / Medullated
(2) Non-Myelinated / Non-Medullated

 Myelinogenesis :-

(1) In CNS :- By Oligodendrocytes

(2) In PNS :- By Schwann cells
 MYELINOGENESIS IN PNS
Schwann cell
MYELINATED Concentric
NEURON rings of
myelin

Outer
cytoplasmic
& nucleated
layer of
schwann
cell
MYELINOGENESIS IN PNS
MYELINOGENESIS IN PNS
 Unmyelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by a Schwann
cell that does not form a myelin sheath around the
axon, and is commonly found in autonomous and
the somatic neural systems.

NON-MYELINATED NEURON

Schwann cell

CYTOPLASMIC
AXON LAY E R OF
SCHWAN CELL
(NEURILEMMA)
 MYELINOGENESIS IN CNS
 In CNS myelin sheath is formed by oligodendrocytes.

OLIGODENDROCYTE
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

4 DIFFERENT STAGES

1. POLARISATION (Resting/Excitable)

2. DEPOLARISATION (Excited)

3. REPOLARISATION (Re-resting)

4. HYPERPOLARISATION
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

BASIC CONCEPT -1 IONIC CONCENTRATION

IN ECF & ICF

EXTRA
Na+ Cl- CELLULAR
K+ FLUID

Na+ INTRA
K+
CELLULAR
NegativelyPONa42-
Charged
FLUID
Proteins
(AXOPLASM)
AXOLEMMA
 GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

BASIC CONCEPT-2 DIFFERENT TRANS - MEMBRANE PROTEINS

ECF

Ions channels or Na+- k+ Pump Voltage Gated channels

leak channels or Na+- k+ ATPase Pump (VGCs)
Na+
3Na+
Na+

k+ k+ k+ 2k+
k+
ICF ATP ADP + PO42- Na+ VGC K+ VGC

AXOLEMMA
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

1. POLARISATION
Membrane is polarised
(-ve from inside & +ve from outside)
+ + + + ++ +
- - - - - - - -
+

The potential difference across a resting

membrane is called Resting Membrane Potential.

RMP= -70 mV
Average = -60 mV to -85 mV
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
+
ECF
+ + Ca Ca
+2 +2
+ - + +
+ a +
V V
K Na +
Channel Channel
K P
N+ G K G
K U
C C
- + -
Channel
-
M a
P
- P CLOSED CLOSED
+ OPEN + +
AD
P +
ATP
OPEN

ICF +
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

Factors contributing to the negativity of axonal membrane /

axolemma on the inner side during resting stage are :-
1. (Leak Channels) + >>>> (Leak Channels) +
K
Na

When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e.

resting, the axonal membrane is comparatively more
permeable to K+ ions and nearly impermeable to Na+
ions.
2. Na+ - K+ ATPase Pump is working
3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in

3. Presence of non-diffusible negatively charged

proteins in the axoplasm.
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

RESTING STAGE

LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC

× ×
MAMBRANE POTENTIAL WITH VALUE (mV) INSIDE CHARGE

+ + + NEGATIVE
- - -

- -
- Na+ -K+ Pump IS
MAINLY
*RESTING +MEMBRANE
+ POTENTIAL RESPONSIBLE FOR
+ POLARISATION.
(RMP) -70mV.
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

2. DEPOLARISATION
Membrane is depolarised
(+ve from inside & -ve from outside)
- - - - - - - -
+++++++++
 + +
+
ECF Few Na+ VGC are open
+ Ca Ca
+ +2 +2
+ - + ---
Na - V V
K NaChannel K
STIMULUS
Channel Channel N+P
M G G
-
P C C
- + a
+++ +
+ + K
OPEN + OPEN CLOSED

CLOSED
Influx of few Na+ ions causes change from
– 70 mv to -55/60 mv.
Potential difference of -10/-15 mv (THRESHOLD
STIMULUS) stimulates the opening of more Na+ VGC.

ICF
THRESHOLD +
+
+
+
STIMULUS + Na +
+ Ca + + Ca Ca
+ +2 +2 +2
+ - +
Na
P V V V
G N+a
K U
K Channel
Channel K M N+ +
G G
NaChannel P K C C C
- + - a
+ +
OPEN CLOSED OPEN OPEN CLOSED

ACTION POTENTIAL
- - - - - - -
/ NE RVE +
- ++++++
IMPULSE
( +30/45 MV)
+DE+ ARISA ION
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

Stimulus induces the opening of a few Na+ VGCs which increases

the permeability of axonal membrane for Na+ ions. As a result,
Na+ ions diffuses inside the membrane.

Potential reaches from -70mV to -55mV/-60mV. This potential

now reached is referred to as the Threshold Potential, and the
change of +10mV/+15mV in potential is referred to as the
Threshold Stimulus.

As the threshold potential is reached, a large number of Na+

VGCs becomes active leading to rapid influx of Na+ ions, due to
which the membrane’s polarity gets reversed and hence is called
the Depolarised membrane.

The potential now achieved, values to +30mV/+40mV and is

referred to as the Action Potential / Spike / Nerve Impulse.
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

EXCITED STAGE (NERVE IMPULSE OR ACTION POTENTIAL)

LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC

× ×
MAMBRANE POTENTIAL WITH VALUE (mV) INSIDE CHARGE

POSITIVE
- - -
STIMULUS + + +

+ + +
- - -
*IONS RESPONSIBLE FOR DEPOLARISATION ARE SODIUM (INFLUX )
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

Action potential

+30 to +45mV Over shoot

Due to maximum Na+ ions concentration inside axon.

0mV
Negative charge cancelled out first due to rapid
influx of Na+ ions.

-60 to -55mV

Threshold Stimulus (+10 to +15mV)

-70mV(RMP)
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)

3. REPOLARISATION
AT THE END OF DEPOLARISATION,
Na+ VGCs GET CLOSED and
K+ VGCs OPENS
WITHIN FRACTION OF SECONDS,
K+ DIFFUSES OUTSIDE THE
MEMBRANE AND
THE POTENTIAL OF -70mV IS REACHED.
MEMBRANE BECOMES REPOLARISED AND IS
RESPONSIVE FOR FURTHER STIMULATION.
The time taken for restoration
of resting potential is called refractory
period, because during this period the
membrane is incapable of receiving another
impulse.
 +

+ +
C a 2+ C a 2+
+++++
+ - + +
+ + V++ V
K NaChannel
N +
Na G
Channel K P G
K P C C
- + -
Channel
-
K
P
- - - -K - -
+ +
AD +
- K +
P +
+
ATP
OPEN CLOSED K
KOPE+ K
OPEN +
+ N +
K K
+ +
K
K
+
+
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
+ + + + + + + + +
+
- - - - - - - - - -

- 70
mv

REPOLARISATION

NOW NEURON IS PREPEARED TO

RECEIVE ANOTHER STIMULUS
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
RERESTING STAGE

LEAK CHANNEL Na+ -K+ Pump Na+ VGC K+ VGC

×
MAMBRANE POTENTIAL WITH VALUE (mV) INSIDE CHARGE

* -70mV –DUE TO RAPID EFFLUX (OUT FLOW) OF NEGATIVE

POTASSIUM IONS FROM EXON.
+ + +
- - -

- -
-
+ +
*IONS RESPONSIBLE FOR REPOLARISATION ARE K+ IONS.
+
GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
 GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
G E N E R A L CONDUCTION

NON-MYELINATED
NE RVE FIBRE
 GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSE
(PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE)
OU T E R C U R R E N T DIRECTION
SALTATORY CONDUCTION = B TO A
SITE A SITE B

MYELINATED UNIDIRECTIONAL
NE RVE FIBRE FLOW OF
CONDUCTION

INNER C U R R E N T DIRECTION
= A TO B

A TO B & B TO A =
COMPELETION OF LOCAL
CURCUIT
 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]

DEFINITION OF SYNAPS E

• It is the junctional region between two neurons

where information is transferred from one neuron to
another.
• Telodendria of one neuron form synapse with dendron
of another neuron.
II neuron
I neuron

Dendron
[ Post-Synaptic
Telodendria Membrane ]
[ Pre-Synaptic
Membrane ] SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE = PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE + SYNAPTIC CLEFT + POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE

 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]

SYNAPSE

CHEMICAL SYNAPSE ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE

SYNAPTIC C L E F T > 20 SYNAPTIC C L E F T = 0.2

nm nm
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]

CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]

Neurotransmitters or Neurohumors
or Neurohormones

Stimulatory Inhibitory

Stimulates impulse at Inhibits impulse at

synapse synapse
e.g. e.g.
1. Acetylcholine (Ach), 1. GABA
2. Nor-epinephrine or (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid)
Nor-adrenaline or 2. Serotonin,
Sympathetin 3. Dopamine,
3. Glutamate 4. Glycine
 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]
NEUROTRANSMITTER
AXON ( Released from the Pre-synaptic membrane)

Synaptic Cleft
AXON TERMINAL
LIGAND GATED CHANN ELS ( LGC)
( On Post-synaptic membrane)
SYNAPTIC VESICLES

PRE-SYNAPTIC
GRADED POTENTIAL
MEMBRANE
( Also known as Post-Synaptic Potential , PSP)
SYNAPTIC
CLEFT
POST-SYNAPTIC
MEMBRANE EPSP IPSP

RECEPTOR
EXCITATORY SYNAPS E INHIBITORY SYNAPSE
NEUROTRANSMITTER
 EXCITATORY SYNAPS E
Ca+2

Ca+2
Ca+2

ACETYLCHOLINE
(ACh)

+
+
+
+ +
+
+ + + DEPOLARISATION
+
+
+

EXCITATORY POST
OPENING OF Na LIGAND
+
SYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
GATED CHANNELS (E.P.S.P.)
 CHOLINEACETYL
MITOCHONDRIA TRANSFERASE ENZYME

Acetyl Co-A C C
CHOLINE
ACh ACh

ACETIC ACID
ACh ACh

CHOLINESTERASE
Ach Ach ENZYME
Ach Ach
Ach
 INHIBITORY SYNAPS E
Ca+2

Ca+2
Ca+2

GAMMA AMINO
BUTYRIC ACID
(G.A.B.A.)

- -
-
- -
-
- - - HYPERPOLARISATION
-
-
-

INHIBITORY POST
OPENING OF Cl- LIGAND SYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
GATED CHANNELS (I.P.S.P.)
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]

ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
Transmission of
impulses across
electrical synapse is
very similar to impulse
conduction along a
single axon.
 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
[ SYNAPSE ]

Electrical Chemical
Conduction Fast Slow
Synaptic cleft 0.2 nm > 20 nm
Neurotransmitter Absent Present

Occurrence in Rare in our Most common

body body
Synaptic delay Absent Present
Blocking Cannot be Controlled by
controlled Neurotransmitter
HISTOLOGY OF NERVOUS TISSUE

GREY MATTER :- It is composed of dendron, cyton,

& non medullary nerve fibers.

WHITE MATTER :- it is composed of myelinated

axons only.

GM WM

WM GM

Position 1 Position 2
e.g.(1)Cerebrum e.g. (1) Spinal cord
(2) cerebellum (2) Medulla oblongata
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Development of CNS

Telencephalon (cerebrum)
Diencephalon

Mesencephalon
(Mid Brain)

Metencephalon
(cerebellum & Pons)

Myelencephalon
(Medulla oblongata)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Development timing of CNS

Central nervous system

Brain Spinal cord

Approx 70 - 80% 100%

100%

2 years 6 years 4 – 5 years

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

BRAIN
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Weight:- Human male --1400 gm

Human female -- 1250
gm
Position:-
Brain is well protected by skull
Brain is surrounded by cranial bones
1 Frontal bone,
2 Parietal bones,
2 Temporal bone,
1 Occipital bone,
1 Sphenoid bone,
1 Ethmoid bone
(Total 8 cranial bones)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Parietal bones(2)
(1)Frontal bone
Temporal bones(2)
(1)Sphenoid bone

(1)Ethmoid bone

Occipital bone(1)
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Coverings of the brain :- Meninx /
meninges
Cranial Venous Sinus
1. DURAMATER
2. ARACHNOID
3. PIAMATER

Telachoroidea
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Parts of Human Brain
Brain divisions Sub divisions

1. Cerebrum
Fore Brain 2. Diencephalon
(Prosencephalon) 3. Olfactory lobes

(Rhinencephalon)

1. Optic lobes
Mid Brain
(Mesencephalon) (Corpora Quadri gemina)
2. Crura cerebri

1. Pons
Hind Brain 2. Cerebellum
(Rhombencephalon) 3. Medulla oblongata
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

FOREBRAIN

Cerebrum

Diencephalon
Olfactory lobes
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM

Cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres.

A longitudinal groove is present between two cerebral
hemispheres called as median fissure (on the dorsal
surface)

Right Left
cerebral cerebral
hemisphere hemisphere
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
 Both the cerebral hemispheres are connected by a
tract (myelinated) of nerve fibres called CORPUS
CALLOSUM.
 It provides Coordination between two cerebral
hemispheres.
 It is a Mammalian character.

Ventral side
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes.
Central sulcus/
rolandic sulcus

Temporal lobe
(Lateral lobe)

Lateral sulcus /
sylvian’s sulcus
Parieto-occipital sulcus
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
 Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes-
Anterior, Middle, Posterior and Lateral.
Anterior lobe is also called frontal lobe (largest lobe)
Middle lobe is called as parietal lobe.
Frontal lobe is separated by central sulcus or
rolandic sulcus from parietal lobe.

 Lateral lobe or temporal lobe is separated from

frontal lobe & parietal lobe by incomplete sulcus
called lateral sulcus /sylvian sulcus.

 Posterior lobe is called as occipital lobe. It is

separated from parietal lobe by a sulcus called
Parieto occipital sulcus.
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
SURFACE OF CEREBRUM

 Many ridges and grooves are found on dorsal surface of

cerebral hemisphere. Ridge are known as gyri while
grooves are called sulci. These cover the 2/3 part of
cerebrum.

 Gyri and sulci are more developed in human beings.

So Human beings are the most intelligent living beings.
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
CEREBRUM (HISTOLOGY)
GRE Y WHITE
MATTER MATTER

 The layer of cells which covers the cerebral

hemisphere is called cerebral cortex and is thrown in to
prominent folds.

 The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey matter due

to its greyish appearance.

 The neuron cell bodies are concentrated here giving the

color.
A. FORE BRAIN- (i) CEREBRUM
CEREBRUM (HISTOLOGY)

Grey matter White matter

 FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CEREBRUM

ASSOCIATION
SENSORY AREA MOTOR
AREA AREA

MADE U P OF
SENSORY INTERNEURON MOTOR
OR (UNMYELINATED, OR
AFFERENT SAMLLEST, E F F E RE N T
NEURON HIGHLY NEURON
BRANCHED)
RELATED TO
MEMORY,
COMMUNICATION
BODY PART BODY
& INTERSENSORY
ACTIVITY RESPONSE
ASSOCIATION
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CEREBRUM

 Sensory area - Analysis of sensory impulses.

Somesthetic area for general sensation.
(Touch, Pain, Temperature etc.)

 Motor area – Generation of motor impulses.

Broca's area for fine movement of
tongue and speech and
Motor area for voluntary movement of
limb muscles.

Association area – Large regions that are neither clearly

sensory nor motor in function and are responsible for
complex functions like inter sensory association, memory
and communication .
 FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CEREBRUM
Somesthetic area
Motor area (Analysis of Touch, temp
(voluntary control) pain, pressure etc.)
Gustatory area
Broca’s area
( Analysis of
(speech
Taste)
center)
Wernicke’s area
(Interpretive
PreFrontal Cortex language
(Seat of area)
Intelligence)
Temporal lobe

Auditory area
Visual cortex area
Olfactory area (Analysis of vision)
A. FORE BRAIN- (ii) DIENCEPHALON
It is composed of Epithalamus ,
Thalamus , & Hypothalamus.
1.Epithalamus
It is upper or dorsal posterior
part of diencephalon. Pineal
gland is connected with
epithalamus.

2.Thalamus
Upper lateral wall of
Diencephalon (80% part)
It acts as a relay centre.
(major coordinating centre
for sensory & motor
signalling)
A. FORE BRAIN- (ii) DIENCEPHALON

 Biological clock
system
 Endocrine control
 Thermoregulation
 ANS regulation
 Behaviour & Emotion

3.Hypothalamus
Optic
chiasma (Lower ventral surface
Pituitary of diencephalon)
gland
Mammillary body
(Mammalian character)
A. FORE BRAIN- (iii) OLFACTORY LOBES
Diencephalon Olfactory lobe

Cerebrum

Olfactory lobe/bulb

 One pair of broad bean size organ.

Olfactory tract
 Found on ventral surface of frontal lobe.
 It is small spherical, solid structure.

Lateral surface ventral surface

LIMBIC SYSTEM / LIMBIC LOBE / EMOTIONAL BRAIN
 The inner part of cerebral hemispheres and a group
of associated deep structures like Amygdala,
Hippocampus etc. form a complex structure called
Limbic system.

Hypothalamus Thalamus

Olfactory bulb
Hippocampus

Amygdala
LIMBIC SYSTEM / LIMBIC LOBE / EMOTIONAL BRAIN
 Along with the hypothalamus, Limbic system is
involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour,
expression of emotional reactions e.g.

Excitement,

Pleasure,

Rage,

Fear,

Motivation,

Olfaction and

Autonomic
responses.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

MIDBRAIN
 B. MID BRAIN
Midbrain is located between diencephalon of
the fore brain and pons of the hind brain.

 On posterior part of mid brain,

Corpora quadrigemina
Four solid spherical projections are
present also called colliculus or
optic lobe (Mammalian character)

Crura cerebri
Anterior part of
midbrain contains
two longitudinal myelinated
nerve fibres called cerebral
peduncles or crus cerebri
or Crura cerebri.
 B. MID BRAIN

Cut section ( L.S.) of mid brain

Optic lobe or colliculi or

corpora quadrigemina

A canal called Cerebral

aqueduct/Aqueduct of
sylvius passes through
the midbrain .

Crura cerebri or crus cerebri or

cerebral peduncle
B. MID BRAIN

Cut section ( T.S.) of mid brain

POSTERIOR
Optic lobe or colliculi or
corpora quadrigemina

Cerebral aqueduct
/Aqueduct of sylvius

Crura cerebri or crus

ANTERIOR
cerebri or cerebral peduncle
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

HINDBRAIN

Cerebellum

Pons

Medulla Oblongata
C. HIND BRAIN - (i) PONS

1. PONS VAROLII
 Pons consists of fibre
tracts that interconnect
different regions of the
brain
 Function :- pneumotaxic
centre
(It regulates breathing
mechanism)
C. HIND BRAIN - (ii) CEREBELLUM

2. CEREBELLUM

It is made up of three lobes.

2 LATE RA L LOBES

1 vermis
C. HIND BRAIN - (ii) CEREBELLUM

cerebellum
White matter
(Arbor vitae )
Cerebellar cortex
(Gray matter)

Longitudinal section of cerebellum

C. HIND BRAIN - (ii) CEREBELLUM

• Cerebellum receives impulses from different voluntary

muscles and joints and then coordinate accordingly.

• Cerebellum maintains the body balance / equilibrium

and body posture.

• It is related with fine and skillful voluntary

movement.

• Persons who take alcohol in excess, their cerebellum

gets affected, as a result of which they could not
maintain their balance and their walking gets disturbed.
C. HIND BRAIN – (iii)MEDULLA OBLONGATA

3.MEDULLA OBLONGATA  Tubular and cylindrical in

shape
 Medulla of the brain is connected
to the spinal cord.
 The medulla contains centers
which control respiration,
cardiovascular reflexes
and gastric secretions.
 It is also concerned with
cranial reflex action
like
sneezing reflex,
salivation reflex,
coughing reflex,
Medulla swallowing reflex,
oblongata
vomiting reflex,
yawning reflex.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

SPINAL CORD
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Foramen of magnum

Spinal cord
N
E Piamater
U
R Arachnoid layer
O Duramater
C
Subarachnoid space
O
E Subdural space
L Epidural space

Conus medullaris (L1)

Filum terminale (non
nervous part)

Intervertebral foramen
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain

Cervical nerves (8 pairs)

Spinal
Spinal
cord
Thoracic nerves (12 pairs) nerves
(31 pairs)

Cauda Lumbar nerves (5 pairs)

equina
Sacral nerves (5 pairs)

Coccygeal nerves (1 pair)

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

WHITE MATTER

G R E Y MATTER

INTERVERTEBRAL
FORAMEN

SPINAL NERVE

VERTEBRE
 T.S. OF SPINAL CORD

Dorsal horn
Neurocoel

Interneuron Dorsal root (sensory)

Ventral Horn Lateral horn

Gray matter Dorsal root

ganglia
White
matter Intervertebral
foramen
Ventral root Spinal nerve Ramus dorsalis
(motor) (mixed) (mixed)

Ramus ventralis Ramus Communicans

(mixed) (motor)
REFLEX ACTION

REFLEX ACTION
• Fast / Quick Stimulus Response

• Sudden

• Automatic / Spontaneous

• Involuntary

• Unplanned sequence of events

• Have no adverse effects

 REFLEX ACTION
At least / Minimum Two neurons are required for the
completion of any reflex action.

Sensory / Afferent Motor / Efferent

Integration / Synapse
Stimulus Response

Direct Indirect
MONOSYNAPTIC R.A. POLYSYNAPTIC R.A.
Interneurons Interneuron
are not involved s are involved

Brain Stem Grey matter of

(Midbrain, Pons, Medulla) Spinal Cord
CRANIAL R.A. SPINAL R.A.
 REFLEX ACTION
REF L EX ARC :- The pathway of completion of any reflex action.

SENSORY /
STIMULUS RECEPTOR AFFERENT
NERVES

CNS

MOTOR /
RESPONSE EFFECTOR EFFERENT
NERVES
 T Y P E S OF REFLEX ACTION

1. On the basis of site

a. Cranial reflex action b. Spinal reflex action

 These actions are

 These actions are
completed by
completed by spinal cord.
brain.
 Urgency is required for
 No urgency is required
these actions.
for these actions.
 These are very fast
 These are slow
actions.
actions.
e.g. Withdrawal
reflex.
e.g. Watering of mouth to
see good food.
 T Y P E S OF REFLEX ACTION

2. On the basis of previous experience

a. Conditioned reflex b. Unconditioned reflex

 Previous experience is required  These actions do not require

to complete these actions previous experience.
e.g. sneezing, coughing, yawning,
e.g. swimming, cycling, dancing,
sexual behaviour for opposite
singing sex partner,
migration in birds etc.
 These actions were studied first by
Evan Pavlov on dog.

 Initially these actions are voluntary at

the time of learning and after perfection
these become involuntary.
 T Y P E S OF REFLEX ACTION

STRETCH R E F LE X

K N E E J E R K RE F LE X

MONOSYNAPTIC R E F LE X

SPINAL R E F LE X
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• All the nerves arising from brain and spinal cord

are included in peripheral nervous system.
• Nerves arising from brain are called cranial
nerves, and nerves coming out of spinal cord are
called spinal nerves.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cranial nerves
Category of animals No. of cranial nerves

1. Fishes(Pisces) 10 pairs

2. Amphibians 10 pairs

3. Reptiles 12 pairs

4. Aves 12 pairs

5. Mammals 12 pairs
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Types of cranial nerves

Sensory Motor Mixed

I, II, III, IV, VI, XI, XII V, VII, IX, X

VIII
 Longest cranial nerve is Vagus nerve.

 Largest cranial nerve is Trigeminal nerve.

 Smallest cranial nerve is Abducens nerve.

 Thinnest cranial nerve is Trochlear nerve.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

ORIGIN OF CRANIAL NERVES :-

I From Olfactory epithelium

II From Retina
III-IV From midbrain
V-VII From Pons
VIII From Internal
IX-XII ear
From Medulla
oblongata
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Name Distribution Function
I. Olfactory Enters olfactory lobe Smell

II. Optic Leads to optic lobe Sight

III. Oculomotor Muscle of Eyes Movement of eyeball

IV. Trochlear Muscle of Eyes Movement of eyeball

(Pathetic)
V. Trigeminal
(Dentist nerve) Sensory supply
a. Ophthalmic Conjunctiva, Lacrimal gland
To concerning part
b. Maxillary Mucous membrane of cheeks

c. Mandibular Lower Jaw Muscle of Mastication

 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Name Distribution Function

VI. Abducens Muscle of Eyes Movement of eyeball
VII. Facial Face, Neck, Taste buds, Anterior 2/3 part
Salivary glands Of tongue, Facial Expression,
Saliva secretion
VIII. Auditory Internal ear Hearing & Equilibrium

IX. Glosso - Muscles & Mucous Posterior 1/3 part of

pharyngeal Membrane of Pharynx & tongue, Saliva secretion
tongue
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Name Distribution Function

X. Vagus Larynx, Lungs, Heart, Visceral sensations

Stomach, Intestine And movements

XI. Accessory Muscle of pharynx, Movements of

spinal larynx pharynx, larynx

XII. Hypoglossal Muscle of Tongue Shoulder & Neck.

Movement of
tongue
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Spinal nerves
 In human 31 pairs of spinal -
nerves are found.

 Each spinal nerve is of mixed type and

arises from the roots of the horns of
gray matter of the spinal cord.
 In dorsal root, only afferent or sensory
fibres and in ventral root only efferent or
motor fibres are found.

 Both the roots after moving for a distance

in the spinal cord of vertebrates combine
with each other and come out from the Inter
vertebral foramen in the form of spinal nerve.
AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM

Definition

System which automatically regulates

the activities of involuntary smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
which are not under the control of our will
is called ANS.

Significance of ANS

 It plays an important role in maintaining the

constant internal environment (homeostasis).
AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM

Division of ANS

1. Sympathetic NS

2. Parasympathetic NS

Both, sympathetic and parasympathetic

Nervous systems functions antagonistic
to each other. Both helps in maintaining the
constant internal environment (homeostasis).
AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM
Effect of sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous system
AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM
Effect of sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous system
 GOLDEN K E Y POINTS
Hyposecretion of Dopamine
PARKINSON’s DISEASE
Progressive degeneration of neurons of Basal Nuclei

Muscle tremors, ultimately causing mask like face

HUNTINGTON’s CHOREA Deficiency of neurotransmitter GABA

Impairment of cerebellum

Atrophy of cerebral cortex

ALZHEIMER’s DISEASE
Hyposecretion of Acetylcholine
Deposition of beta-amyloid protein
Loss of memory (Dementia)
T H A N K YOU