Psychometrics Analysis
Course Facilitator
Dr. Muhammad Bilal Majid Ch.
HEC (PK) Approved PhD Supervisor.
PhD Marketing (Malaysia), MS Marketing (PK).
Marketing & Research Methods Certified (UK).
Customer Analytics & Management Certified (USA).
Personal Email: bilalmajid34@[Link]
Quantitative Research
Methodology
Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is "a formal, objective, systematic
process in which numerical data are utilized to obtain
information about the world
• It can gather a large amount of data that can be easily
organized and manipulated into reports for analysis.
When to use Quantitative Research?
• To recommend a final course of action
• To generalize the findings to a larger population
• To identify evidence regarding cause and effect relationship
• To test specific hypothesis and relationship
What makes a Research Quantitative?
• Its statistical nature of analyzing data
• The causality of data
• The objective based research question
• It follows a scientific approach
Quantitative Controversy
• Some scholars believe that human experience, attitudes and
beliefs cannot be quantified.
• Some scholars believe that quantitative research is trusted more
than it should be.
• Some scholars believe that quantitative research misses important
nuances.
Philosophical Assumptions of Quantitative Research
Sr.# Philosophical Positivism Interpretivism Pragmatism
Assumption
1 Ontology: - Singular reality existing apart Multiple realities shaped Singular and multiple
What is the nature of from researcher’s perception by researcher’s prior realities.
reality? Or what is and cultural biases. understanding
knowledge? (Objectivism)
2 Epistemology: - Distance and impartiality (e.g. Closeness (e.g. Practicality (e.g.
What is the relationship researchers objectively collect researchers visit researchers collect data
between the researcher data on instruments.) participants at their sites by “what work” to
and that being Acceptable knowledge is to collect data) address research
researched? gained through sense and is It is cased on the question).
What is regarded as objectively real. (Objective) perceptions of the Objective + Subjective
acceptable knowledge individuals about the
and how we know it? world. (Subjective)
3 Axiology: - Unbiased (e.g. researchers use Biased (e.g. researchers Multiple stances. (e.g.
What is the role of checks to eliminate bias) actively talk about their researchers include both
values? biases and biased and unbiased
interpretations) perspectives)
8
Cont…
4 Rhetoric: - Formal style (e.g. Informal style. (e.g. Formal or informal
What is the language of researchers use agrees on researchers write in a (e.g. researchers may
research? definitions of variables) literary, informal employ both formal
style) and informal styles of
writing).
5 Methodology: - Deductive (e.g. Inductive (e.g. Combining (e.g.
What is the process of researchers that an a priori researchers start with researchers collect
research? theory) participants views both Quantitative an
and build “up” to Qualitative data and
patterns, theories and mix them )
generalizations)
6 Strategies of Inquiry Surveys, experiments and Grounded theory, Sequential,
field work ethnography, case concurrent and
study and narratives transformative.
7 Methods Close ended questions, Open ended questions, Both open and close
predetermined emerging approaches, ended questions; both
approaches numerical and text and image emerging and
analysis. (Qualitative) predetermined
data, statistical analysis approaches; both
(Quantitative) quantitative and
qualitative data and
analysis. 9
Key decision of Quantitative Research
1. How to collect data
– Survey
• Questionnaire
• Structured interview
•Structured observation
2. Whom to collect data (sampling)
– Probability
– Non probability
How to Collect Data
Survey
• Questionnaire
On-line questionnaires
Postal questionnaires
Self administered questionnaires
• Structured Interview
Telephone Interviews
Face to face interview
• Structured Observation
Participant Observation
Non -Participant Observation
Questionnaire
• A set of Questions designed to generate the statistical
information from a specific demographic needed to
accomplish the research objectives
Importance of Questionnaire?
• Main means of quantitative primary data collection
• Ensures standardization and comparability of the data– everyone is
asked the same questions
• Increases speed and accuracy of recording
Improper design can lead to?
• Incomplete information
• Inaccurate data
• Higher costs
Scales of Measurement
• Nominal
Gender
1. Male 2. Female
• Ordinal
Motivation
1. Highly Motivated 2. Moderately Motivated 3. Less Motivated
• Interval
Temperature
1. 97C 2. 98C 3. 99C
• Ratio
Time
1. 10 seconds Means 10 seconds more than 0
Response formats for scales
• Binary Response formats
My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
• agree • disagree
• Numerical Response formats
My job is usually interesting enough to keep me for getting bored
5 4 3 2 1
Response formats for scales
• Verbal formats
My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
Strongly agree__ agree__ undecided__ disagree___ strongly disagree__
• Bipolar numerical formats
I love my job 5 4 3 2 1I hate my job
• Frequency formats
My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
• All of the time • often • fairly often• occasionally • none of the time
Instrument design: validity
• Internal validity:
The extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed
to the independent variable.
• External validity:
This is the extent to which it is possible to generalize from the data to a
larger population or setting.
• Construct validity:
The measurement of abstract concepts and traits, such as ability, anxiety,
attitude, knowledge, etc.
Instrument design: reliability
• Reliability is the consistency between two measures of the same thing
such as:
• Two separate instruments.
• Two like halves of an instrument (for example, two halves of a
questionnaire).
• The same instrument applied on two occasions.
• The same instrument administered by two different people.
The Major Decisions in Questionnaire Design
1. Content - What should be asked?
2. Wording - How should each question be phrased?
3. Sequence- In what order should the questions be presented?
4. Layout - What layout will best serve the research
objectives?
Designing a Questionnaire
• Designing a questionnaire is based on following principles
1- Principle of wording
i. The nature of the variable will determine what kind and number of questions will
be asked i.e ranking, rating or dichotomous
ii. The wording should be simple, easy and appropriate
iii. Closed ended questions will be used with the intention to have ease, and
enhanced comparability.
iv. Add both positively as well as negatively worded questions
v. Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall dependent, leading or loaded
questions
vi. The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be from general to
specific, and easy to more difficult. It is also called funnel approach.
Designing a Questionnaire
2- Principle of Measurement:
i. Interval and Ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal
scales
ii. The measure must be assessed through tests of validity and reliability
3- General Getup:
As a whole the questionnaire should cover the following aspects
i- The questionnaire should start with a good Introduction followed by well
organized questions with instructions and guidance and sequence. Only relevant
personal information should be demanded that is not sensitive, at last and ended
with a courteous note.
Structured Interviewing
• Structured interviewing is the process of administering an
interview schedule by an interviewer. The aim is for all
interviewees to be given exactly the same context of
questioning. In this way the interviewers are supposed to read
questions exactly.
Structured Observations
• Types of Observations There are two types of observation:
1. Participants observation
2. Non-participants observation Participant Observation
Participant Observation:
• It is when a researcher participates in the activities of the group being
observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their
knowing that they are being observed.
Non-participant Observation:
• Is when a researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but
remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and
drawing conclusions from this. E.g. observing through cameras
Sampling
Important terms in Sampling
• Population - basically, the universe of units from which the sample is to be selected. The
term ‘units’ is employed because it is not necessarily people who are being sampled. The
researcher may want to sample from a universe of nations, cities, regions, firms, etc. thus,
‘population’ has a much broader meaning than the everyday use of the term, whereby it tends
to be associated with a nation’s entire population.
• Sample – the segment of the population that is selected for the investigation. It is a subset of
the population. The method of selection may be based on a probability or a non-probability
approach (see below).
• Sampling frame – the listing of all the units in the population from which the sample will
be selected.
• Representative Sample – a sample that reflects the population accurately so that it is a
microcosm of the population.
• Sampling error – the difference between a sample and the population from which it is
selected, even though a probability sample has been selected.
Cont…
Sampling
Sampling Technique
Probability Non-Probability
Convenience sampling
Simple random sample
Snowball sampling
Stratified random sample
Theoretical sampling
Systematic sample
Purposive sampling
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