PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

IN X-RAY TUBE

PRESENTED BY : PRATIVA KHANAL

BSCMIT 1ST YEAR
NATIONAL MEDICAL COLLEGE AND TEACHING HOSPITAL
DISCOVERY

• Discovered by German physicist Wilhem Conrad Rontgen in

8th November 1895

• Named his discovery “X-ray” because “X” stands for unknown

INTRODUCTION

• Highly penetrating ,ionizing radiation

• Part of electromagnetic spectrum
• Wavelength : 0.01 – 10nm
• Frequency:30pentahertz–30exahertz(3×10^16Hz - 3×10^19Hz)
• Energy: 120 eV – 120 keV
• Velocity: 3×10^8 m/s
CHARACTERISTICS OF X-RAY

• Travel in straight line with a speed of light in vaccum

• Have shorter wavelength (0.01–10 nm)
• Cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic field
• Cannot be refracted
• Have a high penetrating power
• Cause ionization
• Can cause photoelectric emission
• Afffect photographic film in the same way as visible light(turning black)
USES OF X-RAYS

• In medicine
To diagnose pathology

• In industry
To locate cracks in materials

• X-ray crystallography
To explore the structure of materials
 INTRODUCTION TO X-RAY TUBE
Special type of diode used for production of x-rays
External components
• Supporting structure
• Protective housing
• Glass or metal enclosure
Internal components
• Cathode
• anode
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
• Production of X-rays is a process of conversion of electrical
energy into an X-ray energy
Requirements:
• A source of free electrons
• A means of accelerating those electrons to extreme speeds
• A means of precipitously decelerating the electrons
X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons that have been
accelerated through a potential difference of order 1 kV to 1 MV
strikes a metal target
 THERMIONIC EMISSION
Free electrons are provided by the thermionic emission of
electrons from the filament
• Low current is passed through the filament
• Current heat filament and vibrate electrons
• When the heat and vibration is sufficiently high , outer shell
electrons are boiled off and ejected from the filament
• Ejection of electrons from filament –thermionic emission
 SPACE CHARGE EFFECT
• Electrons emitted from the tungsten filament form a small
cloud(space charge) in the immediate vicinity of the filament
• When electrons leave the filament the loss of –ve charges causes
the filament to acquire a +ve charge
• The filament then attracts some emitted electrons back to itself
• Simultaneous emission & re-attraction cycle form a negatively
charged cloud (space charge) close to the filament
• The space charge make difficult for subsequent electron to be
emitted by the filament because of the electrostatic repulsion
which is known as space charge effect.
 ACCELERATION OF ELECTRONS
• Filament is situated at a short distance away from anode(~1cm)
• When high electrical potential difference is applied across the tube, anode
becomes strongly positive and cathode strongly negative
• Space charge electrons are strongly attracted by anode
while cathode exerts a strong repulsion
• Electrons accelerate towards anode with a very high
speed acquiring a large amount of kinetic energy
• Vacuum in the X-ray tube provides suitable environment of emission and
travel of electrons
• Because the accelerate electrons are negatively charged they
tend to spread out owing to electrostatic repulsion
• Negatively charged focusing cup confines the
electron beam to a small area of the anode
• Due to repulsive charge in the focusing cup,
the stream of electron is focused to a much
smaller size
ENERGY CONVERSION INTO X-RAYS
• The kinetic energy of the electrons which reach the target is
proportional to the value of high voltage which accelerate
them across the tube
• When high speed electrons are bombarded with the atoms in a
thin surface layer of the target, X-rays and heat are produced.
• Only approximately 1% of projectile electron kinetic energy is
used for production of X-rays where as rest of 99% is converted
into heat
• Most of the kinetic energy of projectile electrons
is converted into heat by interactions with
outer-shell electrons of target atoms which
primarily excitations rather than
ionizations
• The production of X-rays in target is in two ways:
Bremsstrahlung and Characteristics
• However, for most clinical purposes they are identical, it is
possible to distinguish these two from each other
INTERACTION OF ELECTRON WITH THE
TARGET
• When the electrons interact or collide with the atoms in a thin
surface layer of the target, four types of the interactions of
electrons with the target atoms are possible:
o Excitation
o Ionization
o Characteristic X-ray Production
o Bremsstrahlung production
 INTERACTION OF ELECTRON WITH TARGET
Excitation
• An electron in an outer shell of an atom in the
target is involved in the excitation
• The incident electron coming from the
filament transfers a small amount of
energy (only a few electron volts)
• Displaces it to an energy level farther out
• Electron returns to the vacancy in the shell
• Energy released in this transition appears as heat in the target
INTERACTION OF ELECTRON WITH TARGET
Ionization
• Removal of an electron from an outer shell of
an atom in the target
• Incident electron transfers sufficient energy to
ionize an atom the target by the removal of an
electron from an outer shell
• Displaced electron (Secondary electron) may produce further
ionization or excitation in other atoms of the target
• Again only a small amount of energy is given up by the incident
electron and it ultimately appears as heat
INTERACTION OF ELECTRON WITH TARGET
Characteristic X-ray Production
• Ionization of atom by removal of an electron from an inner shell of an
atom in the target with the subsequent emission of a Characteristic X-
ray photon

Bremsstrahlung production
• Production of X-ray by the deceleration of electrons by the nucleus of
the atom of the target.
INTERACTION OF ELECTRON WITH TARGET

• Interaction of the electron with the target depends upon the

kinetic energy of the electron
• Most of the electron do not have sufficient kinetic energy to
produce X-ray
• They only excite and some ionize the atoms of the target and
produce thermal heat and infrared radiation (also heat)
• At 60 kVp 0.5%, at 100 kVp 1%, at 4 Mev 40% and at 20 Mev 70%
of electron kinetic energy is converted to the X-rays
 PRODUCTION OF CHARACTERISTICS X-RAYS
• X-ray production also involves a small minority
of the electrons which bombard the target
• When projecting electrons reach the target, some
of them collide with the electrons orbiting the
nucleus
• If the electron from the filament has more energy
than the orbiting electron, the collision removes
the electron from its orbit
• Collision creates vacancy in the orbit and is filled immediately
by an electron from the outer shell
• Electron gets its speed by having its potential
energy converted into kinetic energy
• Sudden change of direction when it enters its
new orbit results in a further conversion of
energy into an X-ray photon
• X-ray produced by this process have accurately measurable values
which is equal to the differences in
electron binding energy between the two
shells
• shell binding energies are known characteristics,
unique to each elements
• For this reason, X-rays produced in these process
is known as characteristic X-rays
 Ejected
electron
leaves atom
X-ray with 69 keV of
energy produced. 69
(binding energy of K-
High-speed electron
with at least 70 keV of
L shell electron) minus
12 (binding energy of L-
energy (must be more
shell electron) = 57kev.
than the binding energy
of k-shell Tungsten Recoil electron
atom) strikes electron in (with very little
the K shell, knocking it energy) exits atom
out of its orbit
• Except from the K-shell, Characteristic X-rays
from the other shells have very low energy.
• Only K-shell characteristic X-rays is useful in
diagnostic X-rays
• The Characteristic X-rays have higher energy
when the target material has a higher atomic number
• Specialty X-ray tubes for mammography have molybdenum or
rhodium targets principally because of their low atomic number
and low k-characteristic X-ray energy

• The wavelengths of these X-rays are considered to be suitable for

mammography which need narrow band wave lengths
PRODUCTION OF BREMSSTRAHLUNG X-
RAYS
• Bremsstrahlung- in German word- Slowed down radiation
• Minority of electrons (~5%) from the filament pass close enough
to a nuclei of target atoms and experience a force of attraction
• A projectile electron that completely avoids the orbital
electrons, come sufficiently close to the nucleus of the atom to
come under the influence of its electric field
• Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus positive, there is
an electrostatic force of attraction between them
• Closer the projectile electron gets to the nucleus, the more it is
influenced by the electric field of the nucleus
• The field is very strong because the nucleus contain many protons and
the distance between the nucleus and projectile electron is very small
• As the projectile electron passes by the nucleus, it is slowed downed
and changes its course, leaving with reduced kinetic energy in a
different direction
• The loss of energy reappears as an X-ray
• This type of X-rays are called Bremsstrahlung X-rays
 Electron slowed down by positive
charge of nucelus; energy
released in form of x-ray
High-speed electron
from filament enters
tungsten atom

Electron continues on in different

direction to interact with other
atoms until all of its energy is lost
 MAXIMUM ENERGY

High-speed electron from filament

enters tungsten atom and strikes
target, losing all its energy and
disappearing

The x-ray produced has energy

equal to the energy of the high-
speed electron; this is the
maximum energy possible
• A projectile electron can lose any amount
of its kinetic energy in an interaction with
the nucleus
• The Bremsstrahlung X-ray is associate
with the loss of kinetic energy of electrons and can take on
corresponding values
• Bremsstrahlung X-ray ‘s energy can range from a 100%
conversion of electron’s kinetic energy to a small, intermediate
value at the lower limits.
PRODUCTION OF BREMSSTRAHLUNG AND
CHARACTERISTIC X RAY
X-RAYS EMISSION SPECTRUM
• Bremsstrahlung X-rays produce a continuous
spectrum which contains all possible values
• The energy contained in each bremsstrahalung
X-ray emitted range from the peak electron energy
to zero.
• The maximum energy is numerically equal to the kVp
of operation
• The greatest number of X-rays emitted with energy approximately on
third of the maximum energy.
• In diagnostic range, most X-rays are bremsstrahalung X-rays
X-RAYS EMISSION SPECTRUM
• Characteristic X-rays produce a discrete spectrum which contains only
specified values
• A characteristic X-ray e.g. from tungsten, can
have only 1-15 different energies
• X-rays are emitted only at discrete energy
levels based on the differences between the shell
binding energies
• Electrons falling from the various outer shell into the K-shell emit X-rays
having ( 57,66,68,69) kV
• K X-rays are the only characteristic X-rays of tungsten with sufficient energy
to be of value in diagnostic radiology
• Diagnostic X-ray beam spectrum contains both Bremsstrahalung
and Characteristic X-ray energies
• Bremsstrahlung X-rays can be produced at any projectile electron
energy while Characteristic X-rays needs more than 69kVp energy
• At 100 kVp, approximately 15% of the X-ray beam is characteristic
and the remaining is bremsstrahalung
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY EMISSION
SPECTRUM
• The total number of X-rays emitted from an X-ray tube is the
sum of number of X-rays emitted at each energy over the
entire spectrum, a process called Integration
• Graphically, the total number of X-rays emitted is equivalent to
the area under the curve of the X-ray emission spectrum
• A number of factors under the control of the radiologic
technologist influence the size and shape of the X-ray emission
spectrum and therefore the quality and quantity of the X-ray
beam
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SIZE AND RELATIVE POSITION OF X-RAY
EMISSION SPECTRA

S.N Factor Effect

1 Target material Amplitude of spectrum and
position of line spectrum
2 Tube current Amplitude of spectrum
3 Tube voltage Amplitude and position
4 Added filtration Amplitude, most effective at low
energy
5 Generator type Amplitude,most effective at high
energy
FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY EMISSION
SPECTRUM
1.Effect of target material
• Increasing target atomic number enhances
the efficiency of X-ray production and the energy
of the characteristic and Bremsstrahlung X-rays
• Discrete emission spectrum shifts to the right
with an increase in the atomic number of the
target material and continuous spectrum
increases slightly in amplitude, particularly to the high-energy
side, with an increase in target atomic number
FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY EMISSION
SPECTRUM
2.Effect of tube current (mA and mAs)
• A change in mA or mAs results in a proportional change in the
amplitude in the X-ray emission spectrum in all energies
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY EMISSION
SPECTRUM
3.Effect of tube voltage
• Change in kVp results in an increase in the amplitude
of the emission spectrum at all the energies, but a
greater increase at high energies than at low energies.
• The spectrum is shifted to the right or high-energy
side
• In diagnostic range, a 15% increase in kVp is equivalent
to doubling the mAs and to double the output intensity
by increasing kVp needs to raise the kVp by 40%
FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY EMISSION
SPECTRUM
4.Effect of added filtration
• The result of added filtration is an increase in the average
energy of the X-ray beam with an accompanying reduction in
the X-ray quantity
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRUM

5. Effect of voltage wave form (generator type)

• 5 voltage wave forms: half-wave rectification, full-wave rectification, three-
phase/six-pulse/three-phase/twelve-pulse and high frequency
• Because of the reduced ripple, operation with
Three-phase power or high frequency is equivalent
to an approximate 12% increase in kVp or almost a
doubling of mAs over single-phase power
• Three phase and high-frequency operations are considerably more efficient
than single phase operation. Both the X-ray intensity and the effective
energy are increased
CHANGES IN X-RAY BEAM QUALITY AND QUANTITY PRODUCE BY
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRUM

S.N Factor Effect

1 Target atomic number An increase in quality and quantity
2 Tube current(mAs) an increase in quantity ,no change in
quality
3 Tube voltage(kVp) An increase in quantity and quality
4 Added filtration A decrease in quality,an increase in
quality
5 Voltage ripple A decrease in quantity and quality
FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY BEAM
line focus principle
• The focal spot is the actual X-ray source
• The focal spot is the area of the target from which
X-rays are emitted
• The Smaller the focal spot, the better the spatial
resolution of the image reducing the penumbra
• By angling the target, the effective area of target is made much smaller than the
actual area of electron interaction which is known as line-focus principle
• The line-focus principle results in an effective focal spot size much less than the
actual focal spot size
• Some targets have two angles to produce two focal spots with two filaments
placed one above another
 Heel effect
• Unfortunate consequence of line-focus principle that
radiation intensity on the cathode side of X-ray field is
greater than that on the anode side
• X-rays emitted through the heel of the target is reduced
because they have longer path through the target and
therefore increased absorption
• Results in reduced X-ray intensity on the anode side of the useful beam
caused by the absorption in the heel of the target
• Smaller the anode angle, larger the heel effect
Off Focus Radiation
• Some electrons bounce off the focal spot and land on other areas of the
target causing X-rays to be produced from
outside of the focal spotoff-focus Radiation
• undesirable because it extends the size of focal spot
• significantly reduce the image contrast and increase
skin dose
• Reduced by designing a fixed diaphragm in the X-ray tube
housing near the window
• Metal enclosure is another solution which extract electrons reflected from
the focal spot. So which are not available to be attracted to the target
outside the focal spot
SUMMARY
• Three essential condition for the production of X-rays are:
A source of electron
A means of accelerating the electrons
Means of suddenly decelerating them
• Thermionic Emission provide source of electron
• High energy required to produce X-ray is acquired by projectile electrons accelerating them
to 50-80% of speed of light
• Bremsstrahlung occurs when projectile electrons are slowed down by attraction of atomic
nuclei
• Fewer Bremsstrahlung X-rays are produced at higher energies
• Characteristic X-ray is produced from refilling of the orbital shells after ionization
• Majority of the energy deposited by the projectile electrons is converted into heat
• Target material with higher atomic number raise the intensity and energy of X-ray beam
REFERENCES

• Radiologic science for technologists (Physics, biology &Protection), Stewart

Carlyle Bushong, 9th edition
• Radiography in the Digital Age (Physics, Exposure, Radiation Biology),
Quinn B. Carroll, Thomas Books, USA
• Various internet websites
Thank you