Oluseyi Abegunde

CPUT
Civil Engineering department
[email protected]
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
All Civil Engineering begins
with Geotechnical
Engineering

ground

2
Definitions
Soil mechanics is a discipline that applies the
principles of engineering mechanics to soils to
predict the mechanical behavior of soil.

Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of

civil engineering that deals with soil, rock, and
underground water, and their relation to the
design construction and operation of
engineering projects (Coduto 1998)
• Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering
science which enables an engineer to know theoretically or
experimentally the behavior of soil under the action of ;
1. Loads (static or dynamic),
2. Gravitational forces,
3. Water and,
4. Temperature.1

• According to Karl Terzaghi, Soil Mechanics is the applications

of Laws of Hydraulics and Mechanics to engineering
problem dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by Mechanical and
Chemical Disintegration of rocks.1

Ref. 1. Pg # 8. Soil Mechanics for Transportation Engg. by Prof. Shaukat Ali Khan
 Soil Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with study of
physical properties of soil and behavior of soil masses subjected
to various types of forces.

 Civil Engineer must study the properties of Soil, such as its origin,
grain size distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility,
shear strength, and load bearing capacity.

 Geotechnical Engineering is the sub discipline of Civil Engineering

that involves applications of the principles of Soil Mechanics and
Rock Mechanics to design of foundations, retaining structures
and earth structures.
Typical Geotechnical Project
Geo-Laboratory soil properties Design Office
~ for testing ~ for design & analysis

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construction site 6
 Karl Terzaghi has often been called the father of Soil Mechanics.
 Academically, he earned an under graduate degree in Mechanical
Engineering.
 In 1925, he accepted lectureship at MIT.
 In 1939, he accepted professorship at Harvard University till his
death.
 His recognition and formulation of the effective stress principle
and its influence on settlement analysis, strength, permeability
and erosion of soils was his most prominent contribution. But
Terzaghi also pioneered a great range of methods and procedures
for investigation, analysis, testing, instrumentation, and practice
that defined much of the field we currently know as geotechnical
engineering.
Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by
man, and the product of nature are always complex...
As soon as we pass from steel and concrete to earth, the
omnipotence of theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is
never uniform. Its properties changes from point to
point while our knowledge of its properties are limited
to those few spots of which the samples have been
collected. In soil mechanics, the accuracy of computed
results never exceeds that of crude estimate, and the
principal function of theory consists in teaching us in
what and how to observe in the field. (Karl Terzaghi)
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Virtually every structure is supported by soil or rock.
Those that aren’t either fly, float or fall over.1

 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:2

1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
2. Construction Material
3. Slopes and Landslides
4. Earth Retaining Structures
5. Special Problems

Ref. 1. Pg # 1. Geotechnical Engg. (Principles and Practices) by Donald P. Coduto. 2 nd Ed.

2. Pg # 3 to 16 , Chap # 1. Soil Mechanics by T. William Lambe .
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
• Effects of static loading on soil mass
• Shear failure of the foundation soil
• Settlement of structures
• Stability criteria (Solution)
• There should be no shear failure of the foundation soil.
• The settlement should remain within permissible limits.

• Firm Soil -> Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)

• Soft Soil -> Pile Foundation (Vertical members transferring
load of structure to ground i.e. rock)
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
• Effects of dynamic loading on soil mass
• For Design and construction of roads following must be considered:
• Compaction Characteristics
• Moisture Variation
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
2. Construction Material
• Subgrade of highway pavement
• Land reclamation (Dubai Palm City)
• Earthen dam
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
3. Slopes and Landslides
• Major cause is the moisture variation resulting in;
• Reduction of shear strength
• Increase of moisture
• Increase in unit weight
• Excavation of trenches for buildings require braced excavation.
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?

Landslide of a parking
area at the edge of a
steep slope, mainly
due to increase in
moisture content.
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
4. Earth Retaining Structures
• Earth retaining structure (e.g., Retaining walls)are constructed to retains
(holds back) any material (usually earth) and prevents it from sliding or
eroding away.
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
5. Special Problems
i. Effects of river water on soil mass
a) Scouring
Causes:
• Increased flow velocity due to obstruction
• Fineness of riverbed material
Stability criteria:
• The foundation of pier must be below the scour depth

• Land Erosion
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
5. Special Problems
iii. Effects of frost action on soil mass
• Reduction Of Shear Strength
• Settlement Of Structure In Summer
• Lifting Up Of Structure In Winter
Causes:
• Heaving (due to formation of ice lenses)
• Increase of moisture due to thawing (MELTING)
• Engineering Soil Surveys
• Soil Sampling Devices and Methods
• Soil Testing Devices and Methods
• Physical Properties of Soil
• Evaluation and Interpretation of Test results
• Behavior under Loads and Forces
• Soil Conservation Techniques
• Sedimentation Control of Dam Reservoirs
• Design and Operation of Landfills
WEATHERING OF ROCKS

 Weathering of Rocks
 Physical Weathering
 Chemical Weathering
 Rock Cycle
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by
physical and chemical process into smaller particles.1

 There are two main types of weathering processes:

 Physical (or mechanical) Weathering
 Chemical Weathering

 Biological weathering is caused by activities of living

organisms - for example, the growth of roots or the
burrowing of animals. Tree roots are probably the most
occurring, but can often be by animals!
 Physical (or mechanical) Weathering is the
disintegration of rocks into smaller particles through
physical processes, including:
 The erosive action of water, ice and wind.
 Opening of cracks as a result of unloading due to
erosion of overlying soil and rock.
 Loosening through the percolation and
subsequent freezing (and expansion) of water.
 Thermal Expansion and contraction from day to
day and season to season.
 Landslides and rockfalls.
 Abrasion from the downhill movement of nearby
rock and soil.
 Chemical Weathering is the disintegration of rock through
chemical reactions between the minerals in the rocks,
water, and oxygen in the atmosphere.1

 An example of the chemical weathering orthoclase to form

clay minerals, silica and soluble potassium carbonate
follows:1

H2O + CO2  H2CO3  H+ + (HCO3)-

2K(AlSi3O8) + 2H+ + H2O  2K+ + 4SiO2 + Al2Si5(OH)4
Orthoclase Silica Kaolinite
(Clay mineral)
All rock at or near Earth's surface is
being modified by the processes of
metamorphism, melting,
crystallization, lithification and
weathering. These processes move
rock material through the states of
metamorphic rock, igneous
rock, sedimentary rock, melts and
sediment. The natural and
continuous cycling of rock materials
through these states is
known as the Rock Cycle.1

Ref. 1. General Dictionary of Geology (Environmental Geographic Student Association (EGSA))

SOIL AND ITS TYPES

 What is Soil?
 Formation of Soil
 Types of Soil
 Geological Consideration
 Engineering Consideration
 What is Soil? (Definitions)
 Soil is defined as the weathered and fragmented outer
layer (crust) of the earth’s terrestrial surface. 1

• The term Soil, according to engineering point of view, is

defined as the material by means of which and upon
which engineers builds their structures. 2

• For engineering purpose Soil is defined as the

uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed
organic material (solid particle) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles. 3

Ref. 1. Pg # 3. Introduction to Env. Soil Physics by Daniel Hillel (Elsevier Academic Press)
2. Pg # 2. Soil Mechanics for Transprtation Engg. by Prof. Shaukat Ali Khan
3. Pg # 1. Principles of Geotechnical Engg. By Braja M. Das. 5th Ed. (CENGAGE Learning)
 Formation of Soil
 Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition
(weathering) of rocks through the action of physical (or mechanical)
and chemical agents which break them into smaller and smaller
particles.
Different stages of
weathering of rocks and
formation of soil.
 Types of Soil
 Soil types, based on geological and engineering view
points, are separately discussed below:
1. Geological consideration:
Geologist classify soil into two major categories:
residual soils and transported soil
i. Residual Soils:
When the rock weathering is faster than
the transport process induced by water,
wind and gravity, much of the soil remains in
place. It is known as residual
soil.
 Types of Soil
1. Geological consideration:
ii. Transported Soil:
i. Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed, transported and deposited
by the actions of glaciers. These deposits consists of rocks fragments,
boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay in various proportions (i.e., a
heterogeneous mixture of all sizes of particles).
ii. Alluvial Soil: This type of soil (also known as fluvial soil or alluvium) is
transported and deposited to their present position by streams and
rivers.
 Types of Soil
1. Geological consideration:
ii. Transported Soil:
iii. Aeolian Soil: The soil transported by geological agent ‘wind’ and
subsequently deposited is known as wind blown soil or Aeolian Soil.
iv. Colluvial Soil: A colluvial soil is one transported downslope by gravity.
There are two types of downslope movement – slow (creep – mm/yr)
and rapid (e.g., landslide)
v. Lacustrine and Marine Soil:
i. Lacustrine Soil is deposited beneath the lakes.
ii. Marine Soil is also deposited underwater i.e., in the Ocean.
 Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration:
 Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration (MIT):
i. Clay: ( < .002mm)
– In moist condition, clay becomes sticky and can be rolled into threads.
– High dry strength, low erosion, low permeability, good workability and
compaction under moist condition. Also susceptible to shrinkage and swelling.

ii. Silt: (.002mm < Size < .06mm)

– High capillarity, no plasticity and very low dry strength
– It possesses properties of both clay and sand.

iii. Sand: (.06mm < Size < 2mm)

– Particle shape varies from rounded to angular
– No plasticity, considerable frictional resistance, high permeability and low
capillarity
– Abundant quantities of sand are available in deserts and riverbeds
 Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration (MIT):
iv. Gravels: (2mm < Size < 60mm)
– They form a good foundation material.
– The gravels produced by crushing of rocks are angular in shape while those
taken from riverbeds are sub-rounded to rounded.
v. Cobbles and Boulder:
– Particles larger than gravels are commonly known as cobbles and boulders.
– Cobbles generally range in size 60mm t0 200mm.
– The materials larger than 200mm is designated as boulders.
Soil Composition
 Archimedes Principle
• Archimedes' principle is named after
Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered
this law in 212 B.C
• “An object partially or wholly immersed in a liquid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced by the object”
• Any fluid applied a buoyant force to an object
this is partially or completely immersed in it: the
magnitude of the buoyant force equals the
weight of the fluid that the object displaces”
Archimedes Principle
Archimedes Principle - Why ships
float!!
 Archimedes Principle

Buoyancy
The “upward” force
is acting on an
object due to the
displaced fluid
Archimedes Principle - Buoyancy

How can this Principle be applied to

creating and solving the Cardboard
Regatta Boat Challenge?
 Videos
• http://science.howstuffworks.com/6540-my
thbusters-lets-talk-buoyancy-video.htm
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-U1YVZ
MifMM
 SINKING AND FLOATING OBJECTS

The reading of The reading of

spring balance is 2.7 N spring balance is 1.7 N
What is the reading of spring balance
if the wood is attached to it ? ZERO
 Density and Buoyancy

From Archimedes’s Principle :

Buoyant Force = Weight of fluid displaced
= mg (note : F = ma)
= Vg (note :  = m )
V
Thus FB = Vg
Where ……
FB = Buoyant Force or Upthrust
 = Density of fluid
V = Volume of fluid displaced or
the volume of the object that immersed in the fluid.
 Buoyant Force and Floatation

Buoyant force = weight  the object floats and stationary

Buoyant force > weight  the object moves up

Buoyant force < weight  the object moves down