MODULATION

process by which some

mixing of low frequency characteristic of a high
signals modulating signal) frequency sine wave is varied
with high frequency signals in accordance with the
(carrier signal) instantaneous value of the
signal

imposition of information on modification of one signal by

a given signal another signal
 Types of Modulation
a. According to carrier used

1. Continuous Wave 1. Pulse

carrier is a sinusoid carrier is a train of
pulses (discrete)
 Types of Modulation
a. According to the method used

1. Analog
modulated parameter 2. Digital
is made proportional change the form of a
to the modulating signal given signal
 Reasons for Modulation

1. To reduce the antenna lengths

2. To reduce noise / interference

3. For frequency assignments

4. For multiplexing

5. To overcome equipment limitations

Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
 2. Angle Modulation

a. Frequency Modulation b. Phase Modulation

 Digital Modulation

1. Pulse Code Modulation

2. Delta Modulation
Consider any sinusoid

ѵ(t)= V sin (ωt + ѳ)

ѵ = instantaneous amplitude
V = peak amplitude
ω = 2Πf; angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ѳ = phase angle in radians
amplitude

phase
t = 1/f
NOTE
Any type of modulation should be reversible
(get back to the original signal) by process of
demodulation.
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
A system of modulation
in which the amplitude
of the carrier is made
proportional to the
instantaneous Information
amplitude of the or
AM
modulating voltage. modulating modulator Output
signal (νm) (νAM)

Carrier
Carrier voltage is made (νc )
proportional to the
instantaneous
modulating signal
 General Equation of the AM wave

let the carrier voltage be given by

νc(t) = Vc sin ωc t
and the modulating voltage be given by
νm(t) = Vm sin ωm t
then the amplitude resulting from modulation is
A = Vc + νm (t) = Vc + Vm sin ωm t

Since and Vm = Vc ma, then

Therefore A = Vc + Vc ma sin ωm t
A = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t )

The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is

νAM(t) = A sin ωc t
General Form
νAM(t) = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t) sin ωc t
Standard Form

νAM(t) = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t + cos (ωc + ωm) t

carrier lower sideband upper sideband

LSB USB
where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Π fc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Π fm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ma = modulation index
 Frequency Domain of Standard AM

graph of relative amplitude of

signal against frequency Time Domain of Standard AM

νAM(t) carrier

LSB USB

fc - fm fc fc + fm
Envelope

the curve produced by joining the tips of the

individual RF cycles of the AM waveform

envelope
AM Modulation Index (ma)

Modulation index (modulation factor, modulation

coefficient, degree of modulation, depth of
modulation)

where

; 0 < ma < 1
Percent Modulation (Ma)

modulation index expressed as

a percentage

Ma = ma x 100%
Degrees of Modulation

1. Ma < 100%
undermodulation

2. Ma = 100%
modulation

3. Ma > 100%
overmodulation
Example
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The carrier wave
equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15). Determine
whether the signal is overmodulated or not.

Given
Vm = 2 V
Vc = 1.2 V

Solution

ma = 1.67 (overmodulated)
 Power Content of an AM Signal

PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB

PT = P C

NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
where PUSB = PLSB =

PSBT =

NOTE
PC is constant value before and after modulation. PT is
the total power after modulation and is dependent on the
modulation index. The higher the modulation index, the higher
the output power.
Example
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when
unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.

Given
Pc = 8 kW
ma = 0.3

Solution

PT = 8.36 kW
Current and Voltage Relationships

where
IC = unmodulated carrier
IT = total or modulated current
VC = unmodulated carrier voltage
VT = total or modulated voltage
ma = modulation index
Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the
carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is
sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage modulation.

Given
IC = 8 A
IT = 8.93 A

Solution

ma = 0.701

Ma = 70.1%
Simultaneous Modulation

modulation by several carrier

where
VT = total modulated voltage
IT = total modulated current
maT = effective total modulation index
Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio
waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65, respectively. What is
the total sideband power radiated?

Given
PC = 360 W
Ma1 = 55%
Ma2 = 65%

Solution

PSBT = 130.5 W
 Bandwidth Formula for AM
BW = 2 x fm (single carrier modulation)

BW = 2 x fmhighest (simultaneous modulation)

Effiency

Percentage Power Saving

NOTE
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of
transmission but the total transmitted power is computed on
the basis of double sideband full carrier.
Example
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a
100 kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is
5 kHz?

Given
BW = 100 kHz
fmhighest = 5 kHz

Solution
BW = 2 x fmhighest
BW = 2 x 5 kHz
BW = 10 kHz
10 stations
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain

1. A3E – Standard AM (DSBFC)

- Double Sideband Full Carrier
- used for broadcasting

2. A3J – DSBSC
- Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

3. H3E – SSBFC
- Single Sideband Full Carrier
- could be used as a compatible AM
broadcasting system with A3E receivers

4. J3E – SSBSC
- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
5. R3E – SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and
demodulation.

6. B8E – Independent Sideband Emission

- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed.
- Used for HF point – to – point radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is required.

7. C3F – Vestigial Sideband

- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the world’s
various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.

8. Lincompex (for PCM)

- “Linked Compressor and Expander”
- Basically a system in which all audio
frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to
allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz
of 120 Hz.
NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands.
b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier power
percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.

Single Sideband Modulation

 single sideband suppressed carrier (J3E)

 a form of amplitude modulation in which the
carrier has been cancelled out with the balanced
modulator and one of the sidebands has been
removed by using one of the three different
methods.
Example
An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation. How
much is required for the carrier? What is the power required for the
audio signal?

Given
PT = 100 W
Ma = 100%

Solution
PSBT = PT – PC
PSBT = 33.33 W

PC = 66.67 W
1. Filter Method
 the simplest system
 the unwanted sideband is removed, actually heavily
attenuated by a filter
 the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical, depending on
the carrier frequency and other requirements

Crystal
oscillator

SSB out to
linear
Sideband amplifier
Buffer Balanced Balanced
suppression
modulator mixer
filter

Filter Crystal
Audio
AF in for other oscillator or
amplifier
sideband synthesizer
 2. Phase – Shift Method
 avoids filters and some of their inherent disadvantages
 makes use of two balanced modulators and two – phase
shifting networks

Balanced
modulator
M1

AF in Audio SSB out

amplifier to linear
amplifier
Carrier
90° phase Adder
shifter

Carrier
source

AF Balanced
90° phase modulator
shifter M2
 3. “Third” or Weaver Method
 developed by Weaver
 has the advantages of the phase- shift method, such as its ability
to generate SSB at any frequency and use low audio
frequencies, without the associated disadvantage of an AF
phase shift network required to operate over a large range of
audio frequencies.

Balanced B Low – pass C Balanced

modulator M1 filter modulator M2

2cos ωc t 2cos ωc t
90° phase 90° phase
shifter shifter

sin ωc t 2sin ωc t 2sin ωc t D

A AF carrier RF carrier Adder
AF in generator generator SSB out

Balanced E Low – pass F Balanced

modulator M3 filter modulator M4
Product Detector

 a means of single sideband detection

 mixing of high frequency component and an
incoming modulated signal on a multiplier circuit
followed by a low pass filter

Advantages of SSB

1. power saving
2. less bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading
Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems

 multiplex techniques used for high – density point –

to – point communications

 simultaneously convey a totally different

transmission, to the extent that the upper sideband
could be used for telephony while the lower
sideband carries telegraphy. It consist of two SSB
channels added together to form two sidebands
around reduced carrier.
Standard AM Transmitter

Transmitter Requirements

1. frequency accuracy and stability

2. frequency agility
3. special purity
(absence of spurious signals)
4. power output rating
5. efficiency
6. modulation fidelity
 AM Transmitter Functional Block Diagram
Antenna

High – level Low – level

Modulation modulation
Class B
RF Class A Class C Class C
RF linear
crystal RF buffer RF power RF output
power
oscillator amplifier amplifier amplifier
amplifier

AF AF AF Modulator
AF in processing pre – Class B (AF Class B
and amplifier power output
filtering amplifier amplier)
Crystal Oscillator
It provides a stable carrier frequency at
low power.

Buffer Amplifier

A low gain, high input impedance

amplifier that isolates the crystal oscillator
to improve its ability.

Class C RF Power Amplifier (Driver)

Provide enough gain to sufficiently drive

the modulated amplifier.
Class C RF Output Amplifier
Termed as the modulated amplifier or the RF output
amplifier. This is the output stage for high level
systems.

Linear Power Amplifier

Amplifier which provides linear power amplification

of the amplitude – modulated output signal from
the Class C modulated power amplifier (used for low
– level modulation ).
 AF Processing and Filtering
AF is processed / filtered so as to occupy the correct
bandwidth and compressed somewhat to reduce the
ratio of maximum to minimum amplitude.

AF Preamplifier

Boost the AF signal in order to provide enough gain

sufficiently to drive the modulator.

Modulator

Output is mixed with the carrier to generate the AM

signal.