General Instructions for Physics
Laboratory Course
Dr. Kayumov Bakhodir
Course objectives Related to Program Outcomes
•Develop experimental skills: Students will learn how to design and conduct experiments, including developing
hypotheses, selecting appropriate equipment and techniques, collecting data, and analyzing results.
•Apply theoretical knowledge: Students will apply their knowledge of physics theories and principles to explain
experimental observations and make predictions.
•Demonstrate technical proficiency: Students will demonstrate proficiency in using laboratory equipment and software
commonly used in physics experiments.
•Communicate effectively: Students will develop skills in presenting scientific data and results in written reports and oral
presentations, using appropriate scientific terminology and style.
•Collaborate effectively: Students will work collaboratively in small groups to design, conduct, and analyze experiments,
and share knowledge and skills to achieve common goals.
•Develop critical thinking skills: Students will learn to critically evaluate experimental data, assess the validity of results,
and draw appropriate conclusions.
•Foster curiosity and creativity: Students will be encouraged to ask questions, propose new ideas, and explore alternative
approaches to experimental design and data analysis.
LABORATORY ATTENDANCE POLICY
1) Attendance at Lab is required ( lab is not something you can make up at home ).
2) If you miss more than three labs during one semester – whether excused or unexcused –
you will receive a course grade “F”.
3) Students are allowed to work in the lab during an unoccupied hour until they get
permission from the instructor or TA to do so.
PURPOSE OF LABORATORY WORK
Three principal general goals of this Physics Laboratory are :
1) to give you direct experience of the physical facts of nature,
2) to familiarize you with techniques of measurement and analysis that are valuable in any
laboratory situations, and
3) to give you greater insight into the interplay between theory and experiment which is the
essence of the activity called “physics”.
Fall Semester
week Subject week Subject
Measurement of the moment of
1 Introductory 9
inertia
Measurements of length, thickness,
and radius of curvature; Rotational and translational motion of
2 10
Equilibrium of forces – Vectors on a a rolling body
force table
Accelerated motion — free-fall and
3 11 Practice
projectile motion
4 Practice 12 Young’s modulus of metals
Measurements of the coefficients of Standing waves using a vibrating
5 13
static and kinetic frictions string
6 Laws of motion on a linear air track 14 Practice
7 Practice 15 Make-up missed experiments
8 Mid term exam 16 Final exam
GENERAL LABORATORY POLICIES
1. For each experiment, laboratory manuals will be provided. Also, it is expected that student will consult other
reference materials, e.g., textbooks, handbooks, etc.
2. Students are expected to become familiar with the operation of all experimental equipment. Be sure you
understand the operation of all equipment before beginning an experiment. If you have any question or
confusion, please ask the instructor or TA.
3. No alterations of equipment will be made without the consent of the instructor or TA. Suggestions for
improving the operation of equipment are always welcome.
4. Any necessary equipment (glassware, thermometers, optical elements etc.) and tools, if not already
available, must be obtained from an instructor, or TA and must be returned to them after completing the
experiment.
5. At the end of each laboratory period, groups are responsible for ascertaining that water sources, electrical
sources and equipment, etc., dedicated to the concerned experiment are turned off before leaving lab for the
day.
Textbook(s) and References
1. Jearl Walker, David Halliday and Robert Resnick, Fundamentals of physics - 10 th edition // John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. Douglas C. Giancoli, Physics Principles with Applications - 7th edition // Pearson Education.
3. Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett, Jr., Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics – 7 th edition, Thomson Higher Education.
6. All data are to be recorded in laboratory report forms with PEN. Use of PENCIL for recording the data is
not allowed. The pages of lab report form must be dated. This is particularly important for invention
disclosures and maintaining day-to-day records. The use of other slips of paper for recording data will not be
allowed. Following points are important while recording the data:
a. Record actual measurements, not calculated analyses. This is very important when you have to analyze
anything that went wrong in the experiment. If the data is processed rather than raw, it becomes more difficult
to deconvolute the data and pinpoint the problem at the time of analysis.
b. If multiple values of certain physical quantities are to be recorded or calculated during the experiment, this
must be done in a tabular form. The first column of the table must always represent the Serial No. at the top of
each of the other columns, the name/symbol of the quantity being measured or calculated along with its unit
must be written. Physical quantities that are kept constant during a set of measurements should be recorded
outside the table.
c. Record anything of significance that happens during the experiment. The more remarks you have in your lab
report, the better you will be able to recall the experiment at the time analysis.
7. Please notify the TA or instructor when there is a shortage of some consumable material. Irresponsible usage of
equipment or consumable supplies may result in stern action against the group.
8. Lab reports (for this week’s experiment) must be submitted in the end of class. Therefore, the students must finish
performing the experiment within the present class.
9. The student will be awarded a “zero” for the (previous) experiment for which he/she has failed to submit the lab
report.
10. All the results should be reported in “SI” units.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR LABORATORY REPORTS & VIVA-VOCE
Some guidelines for the contents and organization of a good lab report are presented below.
1. A technical lab report will be submitted for each experiment by each student.
2. All laboratory reports must be submitted to the laboratory instructor/TA/ Laboratory Assistant after
each experiment. The instructor would take the viva-voce for an experiment while it is being
performed and grade the student’s performance for the experiment.
3. A significant weightage would be given to the performance of students in each experiment while
deciding on the final grade for the laboratory course.
4. Each student/group is responsible for the originality of his/her technical report and the data utilized.
Copying from unidentified sources such as prior reports is unfair, and it is highly discouraged. A
significant emphasis is laid on the originality of the report.
Format & Organization
1) Organize the laboratory report into logical sections with titles for each section. For example, Experimentally
Measured Values, Calculations, Results & Discussion which also contains Error Analysis and Conclusion.
2) If a graph is to be plotted, then decide an appropriate scale so as to utilize most of the graph paper. X-axis
should usually be the independent variable and Y-axis the dependent variable. Label each axis with the
name or symbol of the quantity being plotted along with its unit. Calculate slope or any polynomial fit (if
required) using as much length of the data as possible to reduce error. Also, wherever it is important, put
appropriate error bars in the graphs.
3) Each figure must be numbered sequentially and have a caption. Each figure must be mentioned or
discussed in the text. Similarly, ALL tables must be numbered sequentially and must be mentioned or
discussed in the text.
4) Set out the calculations clearly indicating the formulae used. Substitute the values of all the parameters
used in the calculation with proper units, rather than giving only the final result.
5) Estimate the error in measurements, as suggested for each experiment and always write the final result as:
(RESULT ± UNCERTAINTY) UNITS Proper termination of decimal places should be made.
2. Results and discussion 3. Questions
Safety in the Lab
The followings are important safety issues and warnings:
1. Whenever dealing with electronics or electricity, make sure there is no power going to the circuit when modifying
it. Confirm always the main power switch is OFF.
2. To prevent shock (especially on high voltage devices) use only one hand to touch the circuit whenever possible.
3. Using two hands could allow electricity to pass through the body and heart. In our labs, the voltages and currents
used are not large enough for this to be a real risk, but still it is important to remember this for preventing any kind
of shocks.
4. If any circuit you are working with begins generating an excessive amount of heat, it could be due to a short circuit
in the wiring. Immediately remove the power and search for leads that are unintentionally touching.
5. Capacitors, even when disconnected from a circuit, may retain charge for a long period of time. They may deliver
a painful shock even without power. If you are unsure of whether a capacitor is still charged, hold a resistor
against the two contacts to discharge it.
6. Never bring your eyes in the path of ANY LASER beam in the visible and near ‐infrared (750 nm < λ < 1450 nm). It
could permanently damage your eyes.
7. Avoid exposing any part of your body to direct laser beam.
8. In laser based experiments, it is important to know where the beam is getting focused. Do not insert any part of
your body close to that region.
9. Don’t reflect the laser beam to any person’s body or eye while working in the lab.
10. The radioactive sources are very dangerous for your health, so please be aware of the radioactive sources. You
can see the symbol to recognize that.
11. If necessary, (in case of strong radioactive sources) please use dosimeter while working with radioactive
sources.
12. Use hand gloves while handling the liquid radioactive sources. Don’t touch the solid radioactive sources at the
center; hold them from the side only.
13. Don’t expose yourself for long time to radioactive sources by standing near to the sources. While date acquisition
is going on stay at least a meter away from the sources.
14. Don’t keep your mobile phone near to the detector. This may give your undesired extra count to your detector.
Hazard Labels
Danger Labels
Warning Labels
Caution Labels
International System of Units (SI Units)
Name Unit Definition
The meter, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458 when
Length m, meter expressed in the unit m s−1, where the second is defined in terms of the cesium
frequency ΔνCs.
The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 when
Mass kg, kilogram expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s −1, where the meter and the
second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.
The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the cesium frequency ΔνCs, the unperturbed ground-state
Time s, second hyperfine transition frequency of the cesium 133 atom, to be 9 192 631 770
when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1.
The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by taking the
Electric fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be 1.602 176 634 × 10−19
A, ampere when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the second is defined
current
in terms of ΔνCs.
The International System of Units, Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 330, 122 pages (August 2019)
Name Unit Definition
The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is
defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k
Temperature K, kelvin to be 1.380 649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J K−1, which is equal to
kg m2 s−2 K−1, where the kilogram, meter and second are defined in terms
of h, c and ΔνCs.
1. The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One
mole contains exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 elementary entities. This
number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA,
Amount of when expressed in the unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number.
mole 2. The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure of the
Subtance
number of specified elementary entities. An elementary entity may
be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or
specified group of particles.
The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given
direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous
Luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012Hz, Kcd, to be
cd, candela 683 when expressedin the unit lm W−1, which is equal to cd sr W−1, or cd
Intensity
sr kg−1 m−2 s3, where the kilogram, meter and second are defined in terms
of h, c and ΔνCs.
Derived units are products of powers of base units.
Name Symbol Unit
area A m2
volume V m3
speed, velocity v m/s
acceleration a m/s2
density, mass density ρ kg/m3
current density j A/m2
magnetic field strength H A/m
The International System of Units, Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 330, 122 pages (August 2019)
For convenience, certain coherent derived units have been
given special names and symbols.
Expressed in Expressed in
Derived quantity Name Symbol terms of terms of SI
other SI units base units
plane angle radian rad 1 m/m
solid angle steradian sr 1 m2/m2
frequency hertz Hz s-1
force newton N m kg s-2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m−1 kg s−2
energy, work joule J Nm m2 kg s−2
power, radiant flux watt W J/s m2 kg s−3
electric charge coulomb C sA
electric potential differ-
volt V W/A m2 kg s−3 A-1
ence, electromotive force
The International System of Units, Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 330, 122 pages (August 2019)
Expressed in Expressed in
Derived quantity Name Symbol terms of other terms of SI
SI units base units
capacitance farad F C/V m-2 kg-1 s3 A2
electric resistance ohm Ω V/A m2 kg s−3 A-2
electric conductance siemens S A/V m-2 kg-1 s3 A2
magnetic flux weber Wb Vs m2 kg s−2 A-1
magnetic flux density tesler T Wb/m2 kg s−2 A-1
inductance henry H Wb/A m2 kg s−2 A-2
degree
Celsius temperature o
C K
Celsius
luminous flux lumen lm cd sr cd
illuminance lux lx lm/m2 m-2 cd
absorbed dose gray Gy J/kg m2 s-2
dose equivalent sievert Sv J/kg m2 s-2
【 SI prefixes 】
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
101 deca da 10-1 deci d
102 hecto h 10-2 centi c
103 kilo k 10-3 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro
109 giga G 10-9 nano n
1012 tera T 10-12 pico p
1015 peta P 10-15 femto f
1018 exa E 10-18 atto a
1021 zetta Z 10-21 zepto z
1024 yotta Y 10-24 yocto y
【 Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI units 】
The CIPM (2004) has revised the classification of non-SI units.
Quantity Name of unit Symbol for unit Value in SI units
time minute min 1 min = 60 s
hour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
day d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
plane angle degree º 1º = (π/180) rad
minute ' 1' = (1/60)º = (π/10 800) rad
second " 1" = (1/60)' = (π/648 000) rad
area hectare ha 1 ha = 1 hm2 = 104 m2
volume litre L, l 1 L = 1 l =1 dm3 =103 cm3 =10-3 m3
mass metric ton, t 1 t = 103 kg
tonne
The International System of Units, Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 330, 122 pages (August 2019)
Unit symbols and names
General principles for the writing of unit symbols and numbers were first given by the 9th
CGPM (1948, Resolution 7).
■ Unit symbols are printed in roman (upright) type regardless of the type used in the surrounding text.
They are printed in lower-case letters unless they are derived from a proper name, in which case the first
letter is a capital letter.
Ex m(meter), s(second), Pa( pascal), Ω(ohm)
■ Either capital L or lower-case l is allowed for the liter, in order to avoid possible confusion between the
numeral 1 (one) and the lower-case letter l (el).
■ A multiple or sub-multiple prefix, if used, is part of the unit and precedes the unit symbol without a
separator. A prefix is never used in isolation, and compound prefixes are never used.
■ Unit symbols are mathematical entities and not abbreviations. Therefore, they are not followed by a
period except at the end of a sentence, and one must neither use the plural nor mix unit symbols and unit
names within one expression, since names are not mathematical entities.
Ex nm, not mm It is 75 cm long, not 75 cm. long coulomb per kilogram, not coulomb per kg
■ In forming products and quotients of unit symbols the normal rules of algebraic multiplication or division apply. Multi-
plication must be indicated by a space or a half-high (centered) dot (), since otherwise some prefixes could be misinter-
preted as a unit symbol. Division is indicated by a horizontal line, by a solidus (oblique stroke, /) or by negative expo-
nents. When several unit symbols are combined, care should be taken to avoid ambiguities, for example by using brack-
ets or negative exponents. A solidus must not be used more than once in a given expression without brackets to remove
ambiguities.
m
Ex N m or N · m for a newton meter except Wh(watt hour), m/s or
s
or m s , for meter per second ms, millisecond , m s, meter times second,
–1
m kg/(s3 A), or m kg s–3 A–1, but not m kg/s3/A, nor m kg/s3 A
■ It is not permissible to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names, such as sec (for either s or second), sq.
mm (for either mm2 or square millimeter), cc (for either cm3 or cubic centimeter), or mps (for either m/s or meter per
second).
■ Unit names are normally printed in roman (upright) type, and they are treated like ordinary nouns. In English,
the names of units start with a lower-case letter (even when the symbol for the unit begins with a capital letter),
except at the beginning of a sentence or in capitalized material such as a title.
Ex J : joule, Hz : hertz, m : meter, A : ampere, W : watt, exception : oC degree Celsius
■ Symbols for quantities are generally single letters set in an italic font, although they may be qualified by further
information in subscripts or superscripts or in brackets.
Thus C is the recommended symbol for heat capacity, Cm for molar heat capacity, Cm, p for molar heat capacity at
constant pressure, and Cm,V for molar heat capacity at constant volume.
■ Symbols for units are treated as mathematical entities. In expressing the value of a quantity as the product of a
numerical value and a unit, both the numerical value and the unit may be treated by the ordinary rules of
algebra. This procedure is described as the use of quantity calculus, or the algebra of quantities. For example, the
equation T = 293 K may equally be written T/K = 293. It is often convenient to write the quotient of a quantity
and a unit in this way for the heading of a column in a table, so that the entries in the table are all simply
numbers. The axes of a graph may also be labelled in this way, so that the tick marks are labelled only with
numbers.
■ The numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number. Thus
the value of the quantity is the product of the number and the unit, the space being regarded as a multiplication sign
(just as a space between units implies multiplication). The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree,
minute, and second for plane angle, °, ′, and ″, respectively, for which no space is left between the numerical value and
the unit symbol.
Ex m = 12.3 g, φ = 30° 22′ 8″, t = 30.2 oC, but not t = 30.2oC, nor t = 30.2o C
a 10 kΩ resistor, a 35-millimeter film
■ The decimal marker “shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line.” The decimal marker chosen
should be that which is customary in the context concerned. If the number is between +1 and -1, then the decimal
marker is always preceded by a zero.
■ For numbers with many digits the digits may be divided into groups of three by a thin space, in order to facilitate
reading. Neither dots nor commas are inserted in the spaces between groups of three.
Ex -0.234, but not -.234, 43 279.168 29, but not 43,279.168,29
either 3279.1683 or 3 279.168 3
Measurements and Error Analysis
Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true or accepted
value. Measurement error is the amount of inaccuracy.
Precision is a measure of how well a result can be determined (without reference to a
theoretical or true value). It is the degree of consistency and agreement among independent
measurements of the same quantity; also the reliability or reproducibility of the result.
The uncertainty estimate associated with a measurement should account for both the
accuracy and precision of the measurement.
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Measurement = (Best estimate ± Uncertainty) units
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦=
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 | |
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟=
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
When analyzing experimental data, it is important that you understand the difference between precision and
accuracy. Precision indicates the quality of the measurement, without any guarantee that the measurement is
"correct." Accuracy, on the other hand, assumes that there is an ideal value, and tells how far your answer is from that ideal,
"right" answer. These concepts are directly related to random and systematic measurement errors.
𝑥 1 +𝑥 2+𝑥 3 +..+𝑥 𝑁
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 )=𝑥=
𝑁
|𝑥 1 −𝑥|+|𝑥2 −𝑥|+|𝑥 3 −𝑥|+..+|𝑥 𝑁 − 𝑥|
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=𝑑=
𝑁
√
2 2 2 2
( 𝑥1 − 𝑥 ) +( 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ) +( 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ) +..+( 𝑥 𝑁 − 𝑥 )
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=𝑠=
(𝑁 −1)
Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the precision limitations of the
measurement device. Random errors can be evaluated through statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a
large number of observations (see standard error).
Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same direction. These errors are difficult to detect
and cannot be analyzed statistically. If a systematic error is identified when calibrating against a standard, applying a
correction or correction factor to compensate for the effect can reduce the bias. Unlike random errors, systematic errors cannot
be detected or reduced by increasing the number of observations.
R.E. Environmental Physical variations Personal errors
Incomplete definition factors
S.E. Calibration Zero offset Instrument resolution
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Curve fitting least square method
Legendre : “The most probable value of any observed quantity is such that the sum of the squares of the deviations of the
observations from this value is least.”
data
Assume that y is a linear function of x, 𝑦 =𝑎𝑥 +𝑏
(𝑥1,𝑦1),(𝑥2,𝑦 2),.. . (𝑥𝑛 ,𝑦𝑛)
sets :
Difference between y and yi (deviation) : Δ 𝑦 𝑖 =𝑦 𝑖 −( 𝑎 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑏)
𝑆=∑ Δ 𝑦
Let S be the sum of all the deviation squared i.e., 2
𝑖
𝑆=∑ ( Δ 𝑦 𝑖 ) =∑ { 𝑦 𝑖 −(𝑎𝑥𝑖 +𝑏)}
2 2
Figure 1 Distribution of measured data Figure 2 The best fitting
𝑖 𝑖
𝑆=∑ { 𝑦 𝑖−(𝑎𝑥𝑖+𝑏)}= ¿∑ ( 𝑦𝑖) −2𝑎 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑥𝑖+𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 +2𝑎𝑏 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 −2𝑏∑ 𝑦𝑖+𝑛𝑏 ¿
2 2 2 2
𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑦=𝑎𝑥 +𝑏
If the linear equation is to be the best fitted curve for the data, the sum of
squared deviation should be minimized. For S to have the minimum value, its all partial
derivatives must be equal zero, i.e. 𝜕 𝑆 =0and 𝜕 𝑆 = 0 .
𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝑏
𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 +𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 𝑖 =∑ 𝑥 𝑖 𝑦 𝑖
𝜕𝑆 2
=− 2 ∑ 𝑦 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 +2 𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 𝑖 +2 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 𝑖=0
2
𝜕𝑎 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝜕𝑆
𝜕𝑏
=− 2 ∑ 𝑦 𝑖 +2 𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 𝑖 +2 𝑛𝑏=0
𝑖 𝑖
𝑎 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 +𝑛𝑏=∑ 𝑦 𝑖
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 𝑖 𝑦 𝑖 −( ∑ 𝑥 𝑖)( ∑ 𝑦 𝑖 )
𝑎=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 −¿ ¿
2
𝑏=¿ ¿
Table. 1 Calculation process using experimental data
xi yi xiyi xi2
1 1.0 18.1 18.1 1.0
2 2.1 21.2 44.5 4.4
3 2.9 29.3 85.0 8.4
4 4.2 30.5 128.1 17.6
5 5.1 34.3 174.9 26.0
Σ 15.3 133.4 450.6 57.5
5 (450.6) − (15.3)(133.4)
𝑎=
5(57.5) − ¿ ¿
(133.4) (57.5)− (15.3)( 450.6)
𝑏=
5(57.5) −¿ ¿
Significant Figures
4308 – 4 significant figures
40.05 – 4 significant figures
• All non-zero digits are significant.
470,000 – 2 significant figures
• Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant. 4.00 – 3 significant figures
0.00500 – 3 significant figures
• A trailing zero or final zero in the decimal portion only are significant.
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