CHAPTER 1

(PART I)
FUNDAMENTAL
S OF LOGIC
LEARNING OUTCOME

Students should be able to:

 Understand the rules of logic and
know how to construct correct
mathematical arguments
 Distinguish between valid and
invalid mathematical argument
 Solve related problems of logic
 Discuss applications of logic to
computer science
OUTLINE

The Language of Propositions

Propositional Logic Applications
Logical Equivalences

The Language of Quantifiers

Predicate Logic Logical Equivalences

Rules of Inference
PROPOSITIONS

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either True or False

The Moon is made of green cheese.

Trenton is the capital of New Jersey.
Examples of propositions Toronto is the capital of Canada.
1+0=1
0+0=2

Sit down!
Examples that are What time is it?
not propositions x+1=2
x+y=z
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

 Constructing Propositions
 Propositional Variables: p, q, r, s, …
 The proposition that is always true is denoted by T and the proposition that is always
false is denoted by F.
 Compound Propositions; constructed from logical connectives and other propositions

 Negation ¬
 Conjunction ∧
 Disjunction ∨
 Implication →
 Biconditional ↔
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS: NEGATION

 The negation of a proposition p is denoted by ¬p and has this truth table:

p ¬p
T F
F T

 Example: If p denotes “The earth is round.”, then ¬p denotes “It is not the case
that the earth is round,” or more simply “The earth is not round.”
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS: CONJUNCTION

 The conjunction of propositions p and q is denoted by p ∧ q

and has this truth table:
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

 Example: If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is

raining.” then p ∧q denotes “I am at home and it is raining.”
 COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS: DISJUNCTION

 The disjunction of propositions p and q is denoted by

p ∨q and has this truth table:

p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

 Example: If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is raining.” then p ∨q

denotes “I am at home or it is raining.”
 THE CONNECTIVE OR IN ENGLISH

 In English “or” has two distinct meanings.

 “Inclusive Or” - In the sentence “Students who have taken CS202 or Math120
may take this class,” we assume that students need to have taken one of the
prerequisites, but may have taken both. This is the meaning of disjunction. For
p ∨q to be true, either one or both of p and q must be true.
 “Exclusive Or” - When reading the sentence “The door is open or the door is
closed,” we cannot not expect for both to be true at the same time. This is the
meaning of Exclusive Or (XOR). In p ⊕ q , one of p and q must be true, but not
both. The truth table for ⊕ is:
p q p ⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Waiter: “Would you like tea or
coffee?” exclusive OR
THE
INCLUSIVE Patron: “Coffee, please.”
&
EXCLUSIVE Waiter: “Would you like cream or
OR – XOR sugar?” inclusive OR
EXAMPLE
Patron: “I’d like both, thank you.”
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS: IMPLICATION

 If p and q are propositions, then p →q is a conditional statement or implication

which is read as “if p, then q ” and has this truth table:

p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

 Example: If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is raining.” then p →q

denotes “If I am at home then it is raining.”
 In p →q , p is the hypothesis (antecedent or premise) and q is the conclusion (or
consequence).
 Another representation:
 UNDERSTANDING IMPLICATION

 In p →q there does not need to be any connection between the antecedent or the
consequent.
 The “meaning” of p →q depends only on the truth values of p and q.
 These implications are perfectly fine, but would not be used in ordinary English.
 “If the moon is made of green cheese, then I have more money than Bill Gates. ”
 “If the moon is made of green cheese then I’m on welfare.”
 “If 1 + 1 = 3, then your grandma wears combat boots.”
UNDERSTANDING IMPLICATION (CONT..)

 A useful way to understand the truth value of a conditional statement is to think

of an obligation or a contract.
 “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”
 “If you score 80% or above for Discrete Structure, then you will get an A.”

 If the politician is elected and does not lower taxes, then the voters can say that
he or she has broken the campaign pledge.
UNDERSTANDING IMPLICATION (CONT..)

 Case Study:
 “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”

p q p →q
T – Elected T – lower taxes T
T – Elected F – not lower taxes F
F – Not elected T – lower taxes T
F – Not elected F – not lower taxes T
 UNDERSTANDING IMPLICATION (CONT..)
 Case Study:
 “If you score 80% or above for Discrete Structure, then you will get an A.”

p q p →q
T – score 80% T – grade A T
T – score 80% F – grade B F
F – score below 80% T – grade A T
F – score below 80% F – grade B T

But what if you do not score 80% or above? Is

Suppose you score 80% in the class. If your the statement true or false in this case? The
final grade is an A, then the promise was kept statement does not say what grade you will
and the statement is true. If your grade is not receive if you score less than 80%. If you score
an A, then the promise was broken and the 75% in the class and receive a B, you cannot
statement is false. complain that the promise was broken. If you
score 79% and end up with an A, you still cannot
say that the promise was broken.
UNDERSTANDING
IMPLICATION (CONT..)

 Logicians have decided to take

an “innocent until proven
guilty” stance on this issue. An
if—then statement is
considered true until proven
false. Since we cannot call the
statement p implies q false
when p is false, our only
alternative is to call it true.

A false statement implies anything!

CONVERSE, CONTRAPOSITIVE, AND INVERSE

 From p →q we can form new conditional statements .

 q →p is the converse of p →q
 ¬q → ¬ p is the contrapositive of p →q
 ¬p→¬q is the inverse of p →q

Example: Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of “It is raining is a sufficient
condition for my not going to town.”
Solution:
converse: If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse: If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive: If I go to town, then it is not raining.
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS: BICONDITIONAL

 If p and q are propositions, then we can form the biconditional proposition

p ↔q , read as “p if and only if q” .

 The biconditional p ↔q denotes the proposition with this truth table:

p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

 If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is raining.” then p ↔q

denotes “I am at home if and only if it is raining.”
EXAMPLE TRUTH TABLE

p q r r pq p  q → r
T T T F T F
 T T table for F
Construct a truth T T T
T F T F T F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F T F T
EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS

 Two propositions are equivalent if they always have the same truth value.
 Example: Show using a truth table that p →q is equivalent to the
contrapositive ¬q → ¬ p
Solution:

p q ¬p ¬q p →q ¬q → ¬ p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
USING A TRUTH TABLE TO SHOW NON-
EQUIVALENCE

Example: Show using truth tables that neither the converse nor inverse of an
implication are not equivalent to the implication.
Solution:

p q ¬p ¬q p →q ¬ p →¬ q q→p
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T
PRECEDENCE OF LOGICAL OPERATORS

Operator Precedence
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5

p q  r is equivalent to (p q)  r

If the intended meaning is p (q  r )

then parentheses must be used.
APPLICATIONS OF PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Translating English
System
to Propositional
Specifications
Logic

Boolean Searching Logic Circuits

APPLICATIONS OF PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

 Logic has many important applications in computer science and numerous other
disciplines
 For example:
 Logic is used in the specification of software and hardware
 Rule of logic can be used to design computer circuits, to construct
computer programs, to verify the correctness of programs, and to build
expert systems
 Logic can be used to analyze and solve many familiar puzzles
TRANSLATING ENGLISH SENTENCES

 English and other human language is often ambiguous

 Steps to convert an English sentence into a propositional logic
 Identify atomic propositions and represent using propositional variables.
 Determine appropriate logical connectives

 “If I go to Harry’s or to the country, I will not go shopping.”

 p: I go to Harry’s
 q: I go to the country.
 r: I will go shopping. If p or q then not r.
EXAMPLE

Problem: Translate the following sentence into propositional logic:

“You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a computer science
major or you are not a freshman.”

Solution: Let a, c, and f represent respectively “You can access the internet from
campus,” “You are a computer science major,” and “You are a freshman.”

a→ (c ∨ ¬ f )
SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS

 Translating sentences from natural language into logical expressions is an essential part of
specifying both hardware and software systems
 System specification should be consistent, that is they should not contain conflicting
requirements that could be used to derive a contradiction.
 When specifications are not consistent, there would be no way to develop a system that satisfies
all specifications

Example: Express in propositional logic:

“The automated reply cannot be sent when the file system is full”
Solution: One possible solution:
Let p denote “The automated reply can be sent” and,
q denote “The file system is full.”

q→ ¬ p
CONSISTENT SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS

Definition: A list of propositions is consistent if it is possible to assign truth values to the

proposition variables so that each proposition is true.
Exercise: Are these specifications consistent?
 “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is retransmitted.”
 “If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is retransmitted.”
 “The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.”
Solution: Let
p : “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer.”
q : “The diagnostic message is retransmitted”
The specification can be written as: p ∨ q, p→ q, ¬p.
When p is false and q is true all three statements are true. So the specification is consistent.
 What if “The diagnostic message is not retransmitted is added.”
Solution: Now we are adding ¬q and there is no satisfying assignment. So the
specification is not consistent.
WEB PAGE SEARCHING

Most Web search engines support Boolean searching techniques, which usually
can help find Web pages about particular subjects.
Eg. Use Boolean searching to find Web pages about universities in New Mexico.
 Look for pages matching NEW AND MEXICO AND UNIVERSITIES.
 The results of this search will include those pages that contain the three words
NEW, MEXICO, and UNIVERSITIES. This will include all of the pages of
interest, together with others such as a page about new universities in
Mexico.

Note: In Google, and many other search engines, the word “AND” is not needed, although it is understood,
because all search terms are included by default. These search engines also support the use of quotation marks to
search for specific phrases. So, it may be more effective to search for pages matching “New Mexico” AND
UNIVERSITIES.)
WEB PAGE SEARCHING

Eg. Find pages that deal with universities in New Mexico or Arizona.
 Search for pages matching (NEW AND MEXICO OR ARIZONA) AND
UNIVERSITIES.
 (Note: Here the AND operator takes precedence over the OR operator. Also, in
Google, the terms used for this search would be NEW MEXICO OR ARIZONA.)
 The results of this search will include all pages that contain the word
UNIVERSITIES and either both the words NEW and MEXICO or the word
ARIZONA.
 Again, pages besides those of interest will be listed.
WEB PAGE SEARCHING

Eg. Find Web pages that deal with universities in Mexico (and not New Mexico).
 Look for pages matching MEXICO AND UNIVERSITIES, but because the results
of this search will include pages about universities in New Mexico, as well as
universities in Mexico, it might be better to search for pages matching (MEXICO
AND UNIVERSITIES) NOT NEW.
 The results of this search include pages that contain both the words MEXICO and
UNIVERSITIES but do not contain the word NEW.

Note: (In Google, and many other search engines, the word “NOT” is replaced by the symbol “-”. In Google,
the terms used for this last search would be MEXICO UNIVERSITIES -NEW.)
LOGIC CIRCUITS

 Electronic circuits; each input/output signal can be viewed as a 0 or 1.

 0 represents False
 1 represents True
 Complicated circuits are constructed from three basic circuits called gates.

 The inverter (NOT gate)takes an input bit and produces the negation of that bit.
 The OR gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the disjunction of the two
bits.
 The AND gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the conjunction of the two
bits.
 More complicated digital circuits can be constructed by combining these basic circuits to produce the
desired output given the input signals by building a circuit for each piece of the output expression and
then combining them. For example:
 LOGIC PUZZLES

 An island has two kinds of inhabitants, knights, who always tell the truth, and
knaves, who always lie.
Raymond
 You go to the island and meet A and B.
Smullyan
 A says “B is a knight.” (Born 1919)
 B says “The two of us are of opposite types.”

Example: What are the types of A and B?

Solution: Let p and q be the statements that A is a knight and B is a knight,
respectively. So, then p represents the proposition that A is a knave and q that
B is a knave.
 If A is a knight, then p is true. Since knights tell the truth, q must also be true. Then
(p ∧  q)∨ ( p ∧ q) would have to be true, but it is not. So, A is not a knight and
therefore p must be true.
 If A is a knave, then B must not be a knight since knaves always lie. So, then both p
and q hold since both are knaves.
PROPOSITIONA
L
EQUIVALENCES
TAUTOLOGIES, CONTRADICTIONS, AND
CONTINGENCIES

 A tautology is a proposition which is always true.

 Example: p ∨¬p
 A contradiction is a proposition which is always false.
 Example: p ∧¬p
 A contingency is a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction,
such as p

p ¬p p ∨¬p p ∧¬p
T F T F
F T T F
LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT

 Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if p↔q is a

tautology.
 We write this as p ⇔ q or as p ≡ q, where p and q are compound
propositions.
 Two compound propositions p and q are equivalent if and only if the columns
in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
 p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q p→ q
This truth table show ¬p ∨ q is equivalent to p → q.
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Hence, p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
 DE MORGAN’S LAWS
Augustus De Morgan
First Law
1806-1871

Second Law

This truth table shows that De Morgan’s Second Law holds.

p q ¬p ¬q (p∨q) ¬(p∨q) ¬p∧¬q

T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
KEY LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES

 Identity Laws: ,

 Domination Laws: ,

 Idempotent laws: ,

 Double Negation Law:

 Negation Laws: ,
KEY LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES (CONT)

 Commutative Laws: ,

 Associative Laws:

 Distributive Laws:

 Absorption Laws:
MORE LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES
EQUIVALENCE PROOFS

Example: Show that

is logically equivalent to
Solution:
 TAUTOLOGY

Example: Show that

is a tautology.
Solution:
( p  q )  ( p  q )  ( p  q )  ( p  q ) by truth table for 

 ( p  q )  ( p  q ) by the first De Morgan’s Law

 ( p  p )  ( q  q ) by associative and commutative

laws for disjunction
T T
by negation law
T
by idempotent law
TRUTH TABLE

p q pq pq p q pq pq

0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 1 1
EXAMPLE

s : Phyllis goes out for a walk.

t : The moon is out.
u : It is snowing.
( t  u )  s : If the moon is out and it is not snowing, then
Phyllis goes out for a walk.

If it is snowing and the moon is not out, then Phyllis

will not go out for a walk. ( u  t )  s
EXAMPLE: LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

p q p p  q pq
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1

s1  s2
logically equivalent
 EXAMPLE

Negate and simplify the compound statement

( p  q)  r

Solution:
[( p  q )  r ]  [  ( p  q )  r ] 
[( p  q )  r ]   ( p  q )  r 
( p  q )  r
SIMPLIFICATION COMPOUND
STATEMENT

( p  q )  (p  q ) De Morgan's Law

 ( p  q )  (p  q ) Law of Double Negation
 ( p  q )  ( p  q ) Distributive Law
 p  ( q  q ) Inverse Law and
 p  F0  p Identity Law