4.

WOOD AND WOOD

CONSTRUCTION
 Qualities of Wood

 Strong & Stiff

 Light
 Easily worked / shaped
 Fastened quickly & economically
 Recyclable
 Biodegradable
 Renewable Resource
Undesirable Characteristics of Wood

 Not perfectly straight nor precise

 Size & shape affected by moisture
 Contains growth defects
 Can spilt & warp
 Burns easily
 Decays
 Susceptible to Insect Damage
 4.1 WOOD AND WOOD CONSTRUCTION - AN
OVERVIEW (CHAPTER 3 TO 7)
 Tree trunk: Sectional details, tree types, nature of wood, composition of wood
(Chapter 3)
 Lumber : Sizing, Types, Defects, Seasoning, Surfacing, Grading, Wood
products, Building components, Decay of wood & Preservation of wood by
chemical and other treatments
 Wood fasteners
 Heavy Timber Frame Construction (Chapter 4)
 Problems associated with heavy timber frame construction
 Wood Light Frame Construction (Chapter 5)
 Balloon and platform frames - Seven steps in building the frame
 Exterior Finishes for Wood Light Frame Construction (Chapter 6)
 Roofing and problems, Low and steep slope roofs, Paints and coatings, Sidings
 Interior Finishes for Wood Light Frame Construction (Chapter 7)
 Thermal insulation, vapor retarder & mechanics of their behaviors, Finish stairs
 4.2 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF A TREE AND ITS

SECTIONS
 Details of the cross-section: Sapwood, heartwood, bark, cambium,
summer wood, spring wood, annual rings, pith, fiber cells, growth directions
(radial and tangential), rays.
 Type of trees: Softwoods (Coniferous - Firs, Spruces, Pines, Hemlocks,
Larches, etc.) & Hardwoods (Deciduous - Ash, Birch, Cherry, Mahagony,
Oak, Teak, Poplar , etc.)
 Composition of wood: Cellulose (Softwood 40-50%, Hardwood 40-
50%), Hemi-cellulose (20%, 15-35%), lignin (25-33%, 16-25%), extraneous
materials (5-10%, 5-10%)
 Tree Composition

 Bark
 Cambium
 Sapwood
 Heartwood
 Pith
 Tree Cells

 Primarily Hollow, Cylindrical

Cells
– Axis running parallel to the
tree (grain direction)
– Tough Cellulose bound by
Lignin

 Impacts the properties of wood

 Tree Growth

 Springwood (earlywood)
– Faster growth
– Cells larger and less
dense

 Summerwood (latewood)
– Slower growth
– Cells smaller and denser
 Types of Trees / Woods

Oak Pine

Oak
Pine
Poplar
Poplar
 Construction Uses for Wood

 Structural Framing
 Subfloors and Roof Sheathing
 Siding - Structural & Exposed
 Finish cabinetry and Trim
 4.3 LUMBER

 Sizing of Lumber: Sawing (plain, quarter, typical sawing)

 Types: Sawn, seasoned and surfaced
 Defects in Lumber: Due to growth (natural) [Knots, knot holes, shakes,
wanes, decay, pitch pockets, insect and fungal damage] - Due to manufacturing
and seasoning (warp, checks, crook, bow, cup, twist, wane, check, shake)
 Seasoning: Moisture content in green wood, drying of wood, free water, bound
water, fiber saturation point, shrinkage (radial, tangential, depends on position in
trunk), seasoned wood
 Surfacing: Un-surfaced, surfaced (S4S, S2S), (S-DRY, S-GRN)
 Grading: For different usage, structural grade lumber (#1, #2, #3,#4, etc.).
Dimension lumber, Blocking, Appearance lumber - Based on strength - Dimension
of lumber (1”x2”, 2”x10”, etc.) - Nominal and actual dimensions - Boards
 Lumber Production - Sawing
 Plain Sawing
– Maximum Yield
– Varying grain pattern
– Common use - Framing lumber
 Lumber Production - Sawing

 Quarter Sawing

– Perpendicular to annual rings

– Less yield, but consistent

grain pattern

– Improved wearing quality,

less distortion
Typical Sawing Method
 Lumber Drying

 Drying Methods
– Air
– Kiln
 Drying Effects
– Shrinkage
– Reduced weight
– Increase of strength and stiffness
– More dimensional stable
 Differential
Shrinkage
(between radial &
tangential)
during drying
can cause
distortions
 Lumber Surfacing
Rough sawn
 Purpose;
(not surfaced)
– Smooth
– Dimensional precision

 Designations; S2S, S4S

 Surfacing typically performed S4S

before or after drying?
 Lumber Defects
 Growth defects
– Knots & knot holes
– Decay and/or insect damage

 Manufacturing Defects
– Splits & checks
– Crook, bow,
– Cup, and/or twist
 Lumber Grade & Species
Graded by:
 Strength & Stiffness (Structural Lumber), or
 Appearance (Finish Lumber)

Lumber sold by - Species and Grade

 Better Grade  Higher price
 Scarce or Higher Quality Species  Higher price
 Considerations Affecting Strength
 Primary Considerations:
– Species
– Grade
– Direction of Load Vs. Grain
 Other Factors:
– Length & Time of Maximum Loading
– Temperature & Moisture Conditions
– Size & Shape
– Chemical Treatments
 Panel Standards & Grading

 Established by American
Plywood Association
(APA)

 Standards based on;

– Structural adequacy
– Dimensional Stability
– Durability of Adhesive
 Structural Ratings
 Specified by
Thickness or Span
Rating
 Span Rating
– Grade Stamp
– For veneered &
nonveneered
– Long dimension
perpendicular to
the support
 Exposure Durability Classifications
 Exposure Durability
– Exterior - siding or
continuous exposure
– Exposure I; waterproof
glue but lower quality
veneers
– Exposure II; protected
environments &
minimum wetting
 4.4 WOOD PRODUCTS

 Need: (a) To produce any desired shape in wood: (b) To reduce wastage of
wood when members are reduced to required size
 Laminated Wood: Glulam: Used for building any shape such as arch,
frame, shell, etc. - Produced by joining together many small pieces of wood -
Any shape can be produced: Such as curves, angles, varying width cross-
sections, etc. - Seasoning of wooden pieces carried out before laminating
 Structural Composite Lumber: Made of ordinary plywood veneers -
Grains of all veneers oriented in the longitudinal direction to achieve
maximum strength - Two types: Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL):
uses veneers in sheets and looks like a plywood with no cross-bands -
Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL): Veneers are sliced into narrow strands,
coated with adhesive, oriented longitudinally and pressed into rectangular
cross sections.
Laminated
Wood
 Veneered Panels - Plywood
 Thin layers of veneer
glued together
 Odd number of veneers
 Alternating direction of
veneers
 Face veneers parallel
 Size: 4’x8’ panels
 Thickness: ¼” to 1”
Structural Composite Lumber (PSL)
 4.4 WOOD PRODUCTS (Cont’d)

 Structural Wood Panel Products: Usually 4’X8’; equal in strength in two

perpendicular directions; shrinking, checking and splitting greatly reduced; panels have
least wastage of wood - Two main types: Veneered and non Veneered
panels - Veneered panels are called structural wood panels: (1) Plywood panel
- Veneers on face run in the same direction - Interiors veneers run in perpendicular

directions - Odd number of veneers used, viz., 3,5,7,9, etc. (2) Composite panel:
Two parallel face veneers bonded to a of core reconstituted wood. The other type is

Non-veneered panel: (1) Oriented Strand Board (OSB) - Made of

long, strand-like wood particles compressed and glued into three to five layers - Strands
are oriented in the same direction in each layer - OSB is much stronger and stiffer than
others; (2) Water Board - Composed of large wafer-like flakes of wood, which
are compressed and bonded; and (3) Particle Board - Made of smaller wood
particles, compressed and bonded into panels.
 Veneer Grades
 Based on the smoothness & integrity of the veneers
 Classifications; A, B, C (plugged), C, D
 Price Variances

C Plugged

C Grade
A Grade
 Non-veneered Panels
 Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
 Waferboard
 Particleboard
 Fiberboard

Fiberboard
Particleboard
 Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
 Long strand like wood particles
 Alternate grain orientation (3-5 layers)
 Compressed / glued
 Strongest of the Non-veneered
 Uses; Sheathing for floor, roofs, & siding
 Waferboard & Particleboard

 Waferboard
– Large wafer-like particles -
No orientation
– Uses; Low moisture areas

 Particleboard
– Small wood particles
– No orientation
– Uses; Low moisture areas
 4.4 WOOD PRODUCTS (Cont’d)

 Manufactured Building Components: (1) Trusses: Designed and

fabricated with 2x4s and 2x6s joined together with plate connectors; (2) I -
joists; (3) Panel components: Framed panels - Stressed-skin panels -
sandwich panels
 Other Wood Panel Products: (1) Hardwood - A thin , dense panel
made of highly compressed wood fibers - Available in several thickness -
Used in residential siding and roofing; (2) Cane fiber boards: Thick, low-
density board with some thermal insulation properties - Used as a non-
structural or semi-structural wall sheathing - Used for carpet under-layment
 Wood Polymer Composite Planks
 Advantages:
– Decay Resistance
– Easy Workability
 Why Use Trusses or I-Beams?

 Less material (less weight)

 More efficient use of wood
 Increased Span
 Increased dimensional stability
 Installation savings (labor)
 Trusses
 Types of Trusses - Floor & Roof

Floor Trusses Roof Trusses

 I-Beams

 Uses

 Sizes

 Composition

 Cost
 4.4 WOOD PRODUCTS (Cont’d)

 Logs are soaked in water to soften the wood and rotated in a large lathe against
a stationary knife that slices continuous strips of veneer - Then it is cut into
sheets, passed through a drying kiln to reduce the moisture content to 5% - then
assembles into very large sheets and cut to size, graded, and sorted according to
quality
 Veneer Grades: A,B,C,D,E, etc. - Size 4’x8’ and 1/4” to 1” thick - Exposure
durability classification: Exterior, Exposure 1, Exposure 2, etc.
 4.5 DECAY OF WOOD

 Some species have heart woods that have natural resistance against decay or
insects (termites); they are cedars, redwood, cypress, black walnut - to be fully
effective the wood must be 100% heartwood
 Wood can be attacked by fungi (microscopic plants) that cause decay, molds
and stains. Fungi develop in woods when the moisture in wood is above 20%, the
temperature are mild (40o to 100o F ), sufficient oxygen and sufficient amount of
wood as food.
 “Dry” and “Wet” rots cause decay. Even though dry rot grows even in the
absence of sufficient amounts of moisture, yet originally it grew as a result of
alternate wetting and drying. Wood in the ground is exposed to moisture,
oxygen, and rather a mild temperature; hence major decay occurs in this area.
Wood submerged in water does not undergo decay, since adequate supply of
oxygen is not available
 4.5 DECAY OF WOOD (Cont’d)

 A harmless type of fungi, called ‘white pocket’ is found living in softwood

trees. It is an acceptable defect in wood.
 Molds and stains are also caused by fungi, but they do not damage the wood -
In appearance lumber, staining and molds are undesirable.
 Insects bore holes and damage the lumber. When structural integrity is
important, then do not use wood damaged by insects. Termites living in
subterranean nests, get into the wood and start eating the cellulose in wood.
Put a ceramic shield - Remove all wood scraps around the construction site -
Treat the soil chemically - Use chemically treated, pressure impregnated wood
for sills, posts and other parts near the soil - Use concrete foundation around
wood
 4.6 PRESERVATION OF WOOD FROM FUNGI,
INSECT AND FIRE
 Wood treated by pressure and non-pressure methods
 Pressure treatment involves impregnation of wood with desired preservatives
under high pressures. Non-pressure processes are brushing, dipping, cold soaking,
and diffusion (thermal and vacuum)
 Major preservatives are: - Pentachlorophenol and creosote (used for piles, utility
poles, etc.) - Oil-borne pesticide Water-borne preservative: Inorganic Arsenic
(ammoniacal copper arsenate, chromated copper arsenate, ammoniacal copper zinc
arsenate), and ACQ preservative (alkaline copper and a quarternary compound)
 Fire retardant treatment: Carried out by pressure impregnating and chemical
coating - Lumber is placed in a pressure vessel and impregnated under high
pressures - Costly and as such used only for fire walls - Chemical treatment with
zinc chloride, boric acids, sodium tetraborate, mono-diammonium phosphate
 General safety measures: Wooden components should be kept dry at all times -
Keep all wood well clear of soil - Ventilate attics and crawl spaces to remove all
moisture - Use good construction techniques to keep wood dry - Fix roof and
plumbing leaks as soon as they occur.
 4.7 WOOD FASTENERS

 Fasteners are the weakest links in wooden construction

 Earlier mortised and pegged joints were weak due to material removal
 In today’s construction, nails, screws, bolts, toothed plates & adhesives are
used to develop full strength of joined members.
 Since most of the joints depend primarily on the bearing strength of joints,
simple fasteners are found to be sufficient
 Nails: Sharpened metal pins driven into wood with a hammer or mechanical
gun - Should have corrosion resistance: Hot-dip galvanized - Type of nails:
Common nails (flat head); used for most structural purposes - Box nails:
made of lighter gauge wires; less holding power - Casing nails, finish nails
and brad nails: virtually headless, used for attaching finish components of a
building - Deformed shank nails: used for attaching gypsum wall boards and
floor under-layment - Hardened concrete nail: provides proper holding
power to soft roofing tiles - Methods of fastening: Face nail, End nail, Toe
nail.
 Nails
 Sharpened metal pins
 Installation: Hammer or
mechanical nail gun
 Common Nails
 Finish Nails
 Other types
 16d Galvanized

16d Sinker

Deformed Shank

10d Galv. Spiral

Finish Nail

Roofing Nail (far right)

 Nails

 Size - Measured in pennies

 Coatings
– Bright/ Plain
uncoated steel
– Corrosion-resistant

– Resin/Vinyl
 Anchorage
– Face, End, or Toe
 Machine Driven Nails & Staples

 Nail Guns, Staple guns

 Pneumatic (or electric)
 Pre-packaged fasteners
(collated nails)
Battery Powered Electric Nailer
 Improved Productivity
 Used in many applications
 Power actuated fasteners

Collated Nails
 4.7 WOOD FASTENERS (Cont’d)

 Wood screws and lag screws: Inserted into drilled holes and turned into
place with a screw-driver or wrench - Frequently used in cabinet & furniture
construction ; as well as in hinges
 Timber connectors: Split ring connectors: to increase the load carrying of
bolts - Inserted in matching circular grooves - Spreads the load over a larger area
 Toothed plates: Used in factory produced roof trusses - Inserted into wood
with hydraulic presses
 Metal plate framing devices: Used for strengthening common
connections in wood - Joist/Beam hangers, Post cap & post base - Rafter anchor
& framing anchor - Angles - Machine driven staples
 Adhesives: Used very widely in factory-produced plywood, laminated wood,
cabinet work, etc.
 Wood Screws
 Head type Types of ‘Heads’
 Sizing -
– Gauge &
Length
 Installation
 Holding power
 Uses

Deck Screws
 Lag & Drywall Screws

 Lag Screws
– Large screws
– Square or octagonal
head
– Installed w/ wrench

 Drywall screws
– Used to attach drywall
 Bolts
 Heavier structural
connections
 Sizes

 Types
– Machine
– Carriage

 Washers
 Toothed Plates
 Sheet metal plate w/ numerous
teeth
 Used with roof & floor trusses
 Pressed into members
 Very effective fasteners
 Sheet Metal Framing Devices

 Light Wood Framing

– Joist Hangers
– Framing anchors
– Angle anchors
– Rafter anchor

 Heavy Timber or
Laminated Framing
 Adhesives
 Widely used in
the manufacture
of wood products
– Wood panels
– Laminated
wood
– Cabinetry

 On Site Uses
– Sheathing
Sustainability in Wood Construction
 Only major renewable structural material
 Forestry Practices
– Sustainable forestry
– Clearcutting & replanting
 Mill Practices – Lumber Recovery Factor (LRF)
 Transportation
 Embodies Energy Content
 Construction Process
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)