Dr.

Alaa Dahham
Assistant Professor in
Engineering college
University of Mosul

Chapter 2
Materials in Mechanical Design
1. Introduction
• Metals or metal alloys are commonly used to make
machine elements.
• Materials used need to have physical and mechanical
properties to meet the requirements and functions of
machines to be designed, e.g. type of loading machine
need to take.
• Performance of the machines depend on the material
used.
 2- Definitions of Terms

Tensile
Strength, Peak of the stress-strain curve
su

Value of stress which

Yield
Strength correspond to large increase
in strain and little
, sy
or no increase in stress.
• Proportional Limit
The point on the stress-strain curve where it
deviates from a straight line.
Below this limit, Hooke’s Law is applicable.
Point lies close to yield strength

• Elastic Limit
Point at which a material experiences some
plastic strain and will not return to its original
position.
Below this limit, the material behaves
elastically.
Point lies close to yield strength.
 • Modulus of Elasticity in Tension, E
 Constant of proportionality within the elastic
limit.
stress 
E 
strain 
 Ductility
 Degree to which a material will deform before
ultimate fracture.
 Percentage elongation used to measure ductility of
material after fracture.
Lf  Lo
percent elongation   100%
Lo
• Shear Strength, sys and sus
 Values seldom reported.
 sys = 0.5 sy = yield strength in shear
 sus = 0.75su = ultimate strength in shear

• Poisson ratio
 Ratio of shortening (lateral) strain to tensile strain.
L

υ a
• Modulus of Elasticity in Shear,G
Ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain
Relationship of E, G and Poisson ratio:
E
G 
2(1   )

 Hardness
 Resistance of a material to indentation by a
penatrator.
 Brinell hardness tester and Rockwell hardness
tester – two common types of hardness tests.
• Machinability
Ease with which a material canbe machined to
a good surface finish with reasonable tool life.
Affects production rates.
Relative term.

• Toughness
Ability to absorb applied energy without failure
Impact energy: energy absorption value from
tests to measure toughness.
Fatigue Strength
Resistance to failure under cyclic loading.

Creep
Elongation of materials subject to
continuous loading over a period of time.
Should be checked at high temperatures
usually one-third temperature of melting
point of material.
Density
Mass per unit volume

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Change of length of a material subject to a
change in temperature.


 
T
• Thermal Conductivity
Ability of the material to transfer heat.
Affects machines’ performance.

• Electrical Resistivity
Measure of resistance offered by a given
thickness of a material.
Opposite of Electrical Conductivity
3. Carbon and Alloy Steels
• Steel
Alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and other
significant elements.
High strength, high stiffness and durability and
relative ease of fabrication.
• Carbon
Affects properties of steel, i.e. strength
Most steel alloys contains up to 1.0% of carbon.
 Low-carbon steel: less than 0.3% carbon
Medium-carbon steel: 0.3% - 0.5% carbon
High-carbon steel: 0.5% - 0.95% carbon

• The American Iron and Steel Institute

(AISI)
Four-digit designation standard used in the
book
First two digits identify alloy group and
primary alloy elements other than carbon.
Last two digits indicates amount of carbon in
the steel.
• Figure 2-11
• Stainless steels
High corrosion resistance
Have usually 12%-18% chromium content.
Appendix 6 lists properties and designation.
Three main groups:
Austenitic:
– AISI 200 and 300 series
– For general purpose, non-magnetic
Ferritic:
– AISI 400 series
– Magnetic and strengthened via cold work
Martensitic:
– AISI 400 series
– Magnetic and can be heat treated
– Higher strength and good toughness.
• Structural steel
Mostly designated by American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Some examples:
ASTM A36: Most common and very ductile
ASTM A992: Material for making most wide flange
beams
ASTM A500: For hollow structural sections
Appendix 7 lists properties of some structural
steels
• Tool steels
– Typically for cutting tools, punches, dies, chisels etc.
• Powdered metals (PM):
– Used to make machine parts with intricate shapes and
sintered bearing.
– Usually brittle.

• Aluminum
 Lightweight, corrosion resistant, easy to form and machine,
pleasing appearance.
 Mechanical properties highly dependent on their conditions
or temper.
 Some common tempers:
 As- fabricated, F: no specific control of materials
 Annealed, O: to result in softening of the metal
 Strained hardened, H: cold worked for higher strength and
hardness
 Heat treated: series of controlled heating and cooling
processes.
• Zinc alloys
 Typically contain aluminum and small amount of
magnesium.
 Usually produced by casting, e.g. pressure die casting and
permanent mold casting.

• Titanium
 Good corrosion resistance, high strength to weight ratio, stiff
and dense.
 Expensive and hard to machine.
 Used in aerospace structures and components, chemical
tanks and processing equipment, fluids-handling devices and
marine hardware.
 Palladium (Pd) – common alloying element with titanium.
Others include aluminum and vanadium.
• Copper
Low strength (as compare to its alloys)
therefore not common as machine parts.
Good electrical conductivity and corrosion
resistance, therefore used in electrical and
plumbing applications.
Alloys of copper:
Brass
– Alloy of copper and zinc
– Salt water resistant – marine applications
– Also used in screws, connectors and fittings
Bronze
– Alloy of copper and other elements, usually tin.
– Good strength and high wear resistant.
4. Plastics
• Formed by polymers
• Thermoplastics:
– Formed by heating or molding repeatedly because chemical
components do not change.
– Example: Nylon, Acrylic, Polycarbonate.
• Thermosets:
– Plastics whose structure become cross-linked under the
influence of heat.
– Example: Phenolic, Polyester
• Next slide: some application of plastic material (Table
2-8).
5. Composite Materials
• Consists of two or more materials act together with more superior
properties compare to the individual components.
• Usually includes a polymetric resin material with fibrous reinforcing
material dispersed within it.
• Advantages:
 Specific strength can be 5 times as high as to steel.
 can have better wear resistance.
 Dimensional change due to temperature change is smaller.
• Limitations:
 Higher material costs.
 Different fabrication techniques from those used to shape metals.
 Properties are dependent on the orientation of the load.
• Next Slide: some example of composite materials and their uses. (Table 2-
9)
6. Rational Material Selection
• Start with function and design requirements.
• Overall performance requirements. E.g. Nature of
applied forces, operating environment, physical size and
weight of the component.
• Develop a list of important key materials. E.g. Required
strength and costs.
 7. Heat Treatment of Steels
• Modifying of properties at high temperatures.
• Hot rolling, Cold drawing
 Forming steel into a particular shape at high and low temperatures
respectively
 Cold drawn bars have the highest strength with good surface finish.

• Annealing
 Maintaining steel at above critical temperature until uniform
composition is formed, followed by slow cooling below critical
temperature.
 Products are soft, low-strength and free of internal stresses.
• Normalizing
– Similar to annealing, only at higher
temperature.
– Austenite formed.
– Products formed have a uniform internal
structure and higher strength than anneal
products.
• Through-hardening
– Heating of steel until austenite is formed and
rapidly cool (quench) the steel.
– Rapidly cooling causes the formation of
martensite – hard, strong form of steel.
– Tempering
Reheating quenched steel and then slowly cooled
back to room temperature.
Tensile and yield strength decreases but ductility
improves.
Products are usually brittle.
– Next slide: Some heat treatment of steel.
(Figure 2-12)
• Case Hardening
 Hardening of surfaces with interior almost intact to improve
surface’s wear-resisting hardness.
 Flame hardening
 Rapidly heating of the surface for a limited time such that
the heated region reaches transformation temperature.
 Induction hardening
 Passing high frequency electric current through a coil
wrapped around the part to be hardened.
 Carburizing, nitriding, cyanding and carbo-nitriding
 Exposing part to carbon-bearing gases, liquids or solids at
high temperatures.
 Carbon is diffused into the exposed part.
 Next slide: Typical case hardened gear tooth section. (Figure
2-13)