Fundamentals of Network

A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer or a file server.
A computer network is a system of interconnected computers for the purpose of sharing
data and resources.
Computers on a network are called nodes. Nodes can include hosts such as personal
computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two devices are
networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other
device. The computer can be connected to another in the two ways.
 Wired network: Computers are connected using cable media. Most commonly Ethernet Cable,
coaxial cable and optic fiber.
 Wireless network: Computers are connected using wireless media. Radio waves are used in
wireless mode.
A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be computer, printer, or
any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting the nodes are known
as communication channels.
 Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
 The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
 NIC(Network interface card)

 NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

 There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

 Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is
made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
 Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium
Media Access Control Address (MAC address): A MAC of a device is a unique identifier
assigned to network interfaces for communications. MAC address is a physical address of Network
Interface Card. In other words MAC addresses are linked to the hardware of network adapters. A
MAC address is given to a network adapter when it is manufactured.
Example of a MAC address: 00:0a:95:9d:68:16
 Hub
 Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this
request to all the interconnected computers.
Types of Hub:
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are
used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and
can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They
also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Switches
 Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the
network to transfer the data to another device. A switch is better than
Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it
sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore,
we can say that switch sends the message directly from source to the
destination.
 Bridge

 A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from
multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network
bridging

 Bridges were introduced to divide LANs into segments. Bridges keep a record of all the devices
on each segment. A bridge can then filter network traffic between LAN segments. This helps
reduce the amount of traffic between devices
 Access Point (AP)
 An access point is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a network.
 In a wireless local area network (WLAN), an access point is a station that transmits and receives
data. An access point connects users to other users within the network and also can serve as the
point of interconnection between the WLAN and a fixed wire network.
 The range (radius of coverage) for Access Point indoors is 98.4 ft (30 m) and too much greater
distances outdoors, it depends on the technology used
 Firewall

 A firewall is a network security system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a

 Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.

 All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each
message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria
Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it. Repeaters are used to
extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side
of an obstruction.

A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the coverage area of the network, and
repropagate a weak or broken signal and or service remote nodes. Repeaters amplify the
received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is reusable, scalable, and available.
Advantages of Repeaters
 Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area of networks.
 They are cost effective.
 Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be investigated is in
case of degradation of performance.
 They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters
 Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
 They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
 They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
 Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.
Cables and connectors
 Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types
of cables:
 Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
 Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more
expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
 Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light
beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive
as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.
RJ 45 Connector and Port
 A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized physical network interface for connecting
telecommunications or data equipment.
 RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking.
Router
 Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem
 Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on
the motherboard
 A modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send and receive data over a telephone
line or a cable or satellite connection. Modem is used to transmit digital information via analog
systems. The word "modem" is derived from the term "MOdulator - DEModulator"
 The essential functions of a modem are:
 Modulate: an analog carrier signal to carry digital information, it means to convert the analog
signal to digital signal.
 Demodulate: a similar signal so as to decode the digital information from the analog carrier
signal and it means to convert the same signal back to the analog signal then transmitted through
telephone line.
 They are two type of modem:
 Internal modem: Internal modems are circuit boards that plug into a computer's motherboard
 External Modem: An external modem is a discrete unit housed in a separate case. Typically, an
external modem is connected to the telephone line and the computer via cables or USB.
 Uses Of Computer Network
 Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and
data among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the
resource and user.
 Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a
central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator.
Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
 Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the
users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.
 E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing
their business over the internet.
 PROPERTIES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS/Features Of Computer network

 Easy Sharing of Resources: Computers are able to share various resources easily over a
network. Shared resources can be Internet, files, printer, storage and others.
 Performance: It is achieved by measuring the speed of data transmission with number of
network users, connectivity used and the software used. The commonly measured qualities in the
network performance are Bandwidth and Latency.
 Reliability: It means that computer network provides assurance of the delivery of data to the
intended recipient. Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication
in case of any hardware failure.
 Scalability: The possibility of adding new computer without affecting the network performance.
 Security: computer network must be secured for the benefit of the user and data Protection. The
security is achieved by protecting data from unauthorized access
 Communication speed
 Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For
example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the
computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas
 File sharing
 File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network
provides us to share the files with each other
 Back up and Roll back is easy
 Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to
take the back up from the main
 Software and Hardware sharing
 We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications
centrally. So, we do not need to install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can
also be shared
 Advantages
 The common advantages of computer network includes:
 1. Enhanced communication and availability of information: It allows access to a vast amount of useful
information.
 Example: Population data, newsletters, online businesses, contents, Applications.
 2. Allow resource sharing: Fewer resources are needed when an organization uses a computer network.
 Example: Only one Printer is needed instead of buying a printer for each office.
 3. File sharing made easy: Computer network allows people to share files, which helps to save more time and
effort.
 Example: A teacher can share homework to all students through school network
 4. Improve storage capacity: Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other people,
you have to ensure that all data and content are properly stored in the system.
 5.Cost efficiency: on computer network, you can share software license installed on the server and can then be
used by various workstations.
 6.Security of information and resources: users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
 7.Backup of data is easy as all the data is stored on the file server.
Disadvantages
 The common disadvantages of computer networking includes:
1.Lack of independence: people rely on computer network and when the system is down, people
get stack. Most of organizations depend on the computer networks.
2.Security issues: huge number of people use a computer network to get and share their files and
resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk. Viruses can spread to other computers
throughout a computer network. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks.
Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, Examples: The use of Antivirus and firewall.
3.Lack of robustness: computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would
become useless
 Computer Network Architecture
 Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer
The two types of network architectures are used:
 Peer-To-Peer network
 Client/Server network
Peer-To-Peer network
 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to
a problem if the computer with the resource is down
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it
cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network
 Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
 The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
 All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to
send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The
server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
 A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data
easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the
whole system.
 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
 Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
 A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the
cost of NOS is very high.
 It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
Computer Network Types
 A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
 A computer network can be categorized by their size, Number of users connected ,Number and
types of services available and Area of responsibility.
. A computer network is mainly of four types:
 LAN(Local Area Network)
 PAN(Personal Area Network)
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)
 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
 Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
 Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
 Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:
 Wired Personal Area Network
 Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
 Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then
creates a connection with another device to share the information.
 Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home
network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television
but they are not connected to the internet.
 Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting
a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
 Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
 Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
 Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
 Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our
office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line
through which we can connect with another branch.
 Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails,
files or back up servers.
 Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files
within seconds.
 Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook,
Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
 Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources like a hard
drive, RAM.
 Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
 High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth. The high
bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
 The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
 Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
 Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the
virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
 High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing
of routers, switches.
 Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
Internetwork
 An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer
network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
 An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
 An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
 The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
Types Of Internetwork:
 1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The
access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet is
the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the
external network.
 2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization which is only
accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share
the information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet provides the
facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Intranet advantages:
 Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the organization
can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
 Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
 Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be accessed by
the authorized user.
 Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to another
device with different architecture.
 Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and distributes the
duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.
 Internet is a large WAN that is composed of millions of interconnected networks.
 Example: Kigali and Nairobi networks are connected through the Internet