Topic: 16

Reproduction
Grade: 10 Subject: Biology

BCISE/GR-10/Chp -16/……../01-20
OBJECTIVE
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is a process resulting
in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Cells in one part of the body divide by mitosis
and then break off from the parent to form a
new organism.
• All the offspring are genetically identical.
• These organisms all reproduce asexually.
Yeast (Fungi) E-coli (Bacteria) Animal (Hydra)
BACTERIA
IGCSE 5
FUNGI
IGCSE 7
IGCSE 8
 BACTERIA, FUNGUS AND POTATOES

BACTERIA
Binary fission
FUNGI
Formation of spore
POTATOES
Formation of tubers
IGCSE 9
 ADV./DISADV.
ADV-
• Only one parent is required
• Large no of organisms can be produce in short
time
• Offsprings identical
• Simple and reliable

DISADV-
⦿Lack of variation – any adverse change will
affect quickly
⦿Cannot survive in different condition
IGCSE 12
Sexual reproduction is a process involving
the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex
cells) to form a zygote and the production of
offspring that are genetically different from
each other

Fertilisation is the fusion of gamete nuclei

 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Sex cells called gametes are produced.
• There are two types, a male gamete and a female.
• The male gamete must move to the female gamete
and fuse.
• This is called fertilisation.
• The new cell formed is called a zygote.
• The male gamete sperm are produced in the testes.
• In the female the ova are produced in the ovaries.
• The cells inside these organs divide by meiosis.
• Meiosis produces cells that are not genetically
identical.
• In meiosis four cells are made from the original
cell.
• These cells are called haploid cells as they each
have half the copy of chromosomes.
• The whole of asexual reproduction happens using
mitosis.
• This is when a cell with the full number of
chromosomes (diploid) copies itself to become two
identical cells.
• In sexual reproduction, the gametes are made using
meiosis.
• This produces haploid cells with only half the full
number of chromosomes.
• Once they combine to make a zygote they will once
again be up to the full number (diploid) of
chromosomes and the new cell can continue dividing
using mitosis.
 Humans
• Total Chromosomes – 46
– Diploid - 46
– Haploid - 23
 Research
• Cat
• Elephant
• Lotus
• Cockroach
• Fish
• Earthworm
• Rice
 ADV./DIADV.

Adv-
produces variation in the offspring
Evolution

Disadv-
requires a second parent
complex procedure (things can go wrong)

IGCSE 23
STRUCTURE OF FLOWER
Sepals

petals

stamens

filaments

anthers

carpels

style

stigma

ovary and

ovules
IGCSE 26
 Function of
SEPALS
Protect flower in bud
PETALS
Attract insects for pollination
STAMEN
Male part of the flower
FILAMENT Holds the anther
ANTHERS
Contains the male gamete
IGCSE 27
CARPEL
Female part of the flower
STYLE Holds the stigma
STIGMA
Collects the pollen
OVARIES
Produces the female gamete
OVULES
Fuses with the male gamete to
produce a zygote
E

F
Pollen grains of Insect pollinated Pollen grains of wind pollinated

Sticky Smooth and light

Sticks to insects Can be easily blown by the wind
Quite large quantities of pollen grain Very large quantities of pollen made
made
• Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma
• Define self-pollination as the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the same flower or different flower on the
same plant
• Define cross-pollination as transfer of pollen
grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of a flower on a different plant of the same
species
• Discuss the implications to a species of self-
pollination and cross-pollination in terms of
• variation, capacity to respond to changes in
the environment and reliance on pollinators
 Self pollination
• limited / little, variation ;
• offspring become homozygous (over time) / AW ;
• variation is due to mutation ;
• low chance that mutations will be expressed / AW ;
• offspring will be well adapted to conditions, locally / near parent ;
• if environment does not change ;
• limited / no, opportunity for evolution, if environment changes /
example of
• change / will not be able to adapt to change in the environment ;
• AVP ; e.g. some variation due to meiosis / reduced variation leads
to
• intraspecific competition locally
 Insect
• Have scent
• Have nectaries
• Anthers few and inside the flowers
• Pollengrains have patterned outer walls
• Stigmas small and inside the flower
• Many ovules
• Plants grow singly

IGCSE 37
IGCSE 40
 Describe the environmental
conditions that affect germination of seeds

❖Water

❖Temperature

❖Oxygen
 Male reproductive
system
The Human Male
•Testes~ sperm formation
Scrotum~ supports the testis and
keeps the temperature cooler.
Sperm duct~ carry the sperm
from the testes to the penis.
Penis - placed inside the vagina
during sexual intercourse to
release the sperm.
urethra ~ carries sperm
Prostate gland~ anticoagulant;
nutrients which carries the sperm in
the semen.

IGCSE 44
 Female reproductive system
• The Human Female
• Ovaries - produces egg

• Oviduct - fertilization

• Uterus ~ where the embryo

develops

• Cervix - keeps the baby

secured till birth.

• vagina - deposition of sperm

IGCSE 48
 recall D

IGCSE 51
 D

G
E

IGCSE 52
 Gametes

EGG

SPERM

IGCSE 54
RECALL
RECALL
 Zygote development
• Fertilisation happens
• Zygote travels towards uterus (3 days) - 64 cells
• Embryo
• By 6 weeks after fertilisation all the major organs are
beginning to grow.
• First 3 months the embryo gets nutrients from the mother

by diffusion through the uterus lining.

• By 8 weeks is starting to move
• By 10 or 11 weeks all the organs are in place and is called
fetus.
• Next 28 weeks fetus will increase in mass by 8 million

times.
• This period is called GESTATION which lasts about 40

weeks. IGCSE 61
chromosomes / DNA, duplicate(s) / replicate(s) ;
chromosomes separate ;
mitosis / nuclear division ;
(zygote / fertilised egg) divides / splits (into two) ;
(nuclear / cell) division / mitosis, repeated / AW ;
forming a, ball / cluster, of cells ;
cells are genetically identical ;
AVP ; e.g. cell, specialisation / differentiation / ref. to stem
cells
IGCSE 68
 The Placenta
⦿Organ that allows constant exchange of materials
between the mother and the fetus
⦿Develops from fetal tissue
⦿Maternal and fetal blood does not mix
⦿What happens if they mix
Male childrens will be affected by the female
hormones
Blood pressure
Antigens of the fetus could provoke production of
antibodies by the mother

IGCSE 69
 The Placenta
⦿Organ that allows constant exchange of materials
between the mother and the fetus
⦿Develops from fetal tissue
⦿Maternal and fetal blood does not mix
⦿What happens if they mix
Male childrens will be affected by the female
hormones
Blood pressure
Antigens of the fetus could provoke production of
antibodies by the mother

IGCSE 70
 The Placenta
What is passed across the placenta?

◼ Food
◼ Oxygen
◼ Waste

⦿ Umbilical cord

⦿Connection between the growing fetus and the

placenta
⦿After birth the cord degenerates and forms the
umbilicus

IGCSE 71
 Amniotic fluid
• Amniotic Sac contains Fluid called amniotic
fluid produced by the amniotic membrane
• Protects the fetus from mechanical damage
• When this bag bursts it is the signal that birth
is imminent

IGCSE 73
 The Menstrual Cycle

• Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is controlled

by hormones

• The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long

• Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through the

cycle (day 14) and the egg then travels down the oviduct to the uterus

• Failure to fertilise the egg causes menstruation to occur – this is

caused by the breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus

• Menstruation lasts around 5 – 7 days and signals the beginning of the

next cycle

• After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken

again in preparation for possible implantation in the next cycle
 Female hormones
⦿Oestrogen
◼ Repair of the uterus lining
◼ Control ovulation
⦿Progesterone
◼ Maintaining the lining
◼ Maintaining ovulation

IGCSE 82
 Menstrual cycle – 28 days
⦿ Follicular phase
◼ FSH released by Pituitary gland which stimulates Follicles for development of
eggs.
◼ As they mature release estrogen
◼ Thickening of the uterus lining
◼ High levels of estrogen to release more LH(leutinising hormone)
⦿ Ovulation (around day 14)
◼ High Level LH triggers ovulation, secretes progesterone and then forms
corpus luteum
◼ Progesterone stimulates the uterus lining to thicken

◼ Progesterone level reduces the amount of LH and FSH

◼ The matured egg is released

◼ After being released the egg is swept towards the fallopian tubes
⦿ Luteal Phase
◼ Corpus luteum produces progesterone
◼ Preparation of endometrium and supporting the embryo.
◼ If the egg is not fertilised the corpus leuteum disappears and progesterone is
not produced and lining of uterus breaks down. Level of Oestrogen also falls.
◼ Mensturation happens IGCSE 83
IGCSE 84
 Hiv- human immunodeficiency virus
• Methods of transmission
– Passed during intercourse
– Contact with blood
– Mother to the baby

• Prevention
• Using Condom
• Reducing number of partners
• Care during blood transfusion
• Sharing of needles

IGCSE 87
 Mode of action
• Damages the immune system
• Avoids being recognised by changing the outer
coat
• Multiplies within other cells
• Leads to AIDS

IGCSE 88
The effects of HIV on the immune system
•HIV attacks certain kinds of lymphocyte, so the number of these
cells in the body decreases.

•Lymphocytes produce antibodies against infections.

•If the body cannot respond to infections through the immune

system, it becomes vulnerable to pathogens that might not otherwise
be life-threatening.

•As a result, the patient has little or no resistance to a wide range of

diseases such as infl uenza, pneumonia, blood disorders, skin cancer
or damage to the nervous system, which the body cannot resist.
Controlling the Spread of STIs

The spread of STIs such as HIV are best controlled by:

○ Limiting the number of sexual partners an individual has

○ Having protected sex
○ Getting tested if unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners has occurred
○ Raising awareness by education programmes
Students were discussing how to remember the
difference between two groups of cells, ‘many,
minute and motile’ or ‘few,
fat and fixed’.
What group of cells were they referring to?
A. Male and female gametes
B. Animal and plant cells
C. Red and white blood cells
D. Xylem and phloem cells
The statements below are about different hormones in the
human body.
1. Produced by the pancreas.
2. Causes the voice to deepen at puberty.
3. Causes an egg to mature in the menstrual cycle.
4. Promotes the development of stronger muscles.
Which of these statements are correct for testosterone?
A. 1 and 2
B. 2 and 4
C. 3 and 4
D. 4 only
There are a number of hormones that control
fertility in women.
Which one of these maintains the lining during
pregnancy?
A. Oestrogen
B. Progesterone
C. FSH
D. Testosterone
The diagram shows a human sperm cell. The sperm
cell has many mitochondria in the mid section.

How do the mitochondria help the sperm carry out its function?
A. They carry the genetic information from the male parent.
B. They release energy for movement.
C. They help the sperm enter the egg.
Which of the following is not an advantage of asexual
reproduction?
A. Population numbers can increase rapidly when
conditions are favourable.
B. Asexual reproduction is very time and energy
efficient.
C. It leads to increased genetic variation within a
population.
D. Asexual reproduction enables organisms to exploit
suitable environments fast.
The diagram shows the menstrual cycle. This is a 28 day cycle.

Which time range in the cycle is the woman most likely to get pregnant?
A. Days 1 - 4
B. Days 7 - 10
C. Days 13 - 16
D. Days 20 - 23
GERMINATION
• Investigate and state the environmental
conditions that affect germination of seeds,
limited to the requirement for water, oxygen
and a suitable temperature
Cross section of a Seed

Mrs Theresa Teo GE2003 101

Germination

Mrs Theresa Teo GE2003 102

 Germination
The growth of the embryo out of the testa so that it becomes anchored in the soil to
become a seedling.

Conditions for germinating

1 Water

To activate enzymes in the cotyledon to digest the stored food for the growing embryo.

2 Oxygen
For respiration of cells in the embryo.

3 Suitable temperature
For enzymes to function.

Mrs Theresa Teo GE2003 103

 WATER
The water that reaches the embryo and cotyledons is
used to:
● activate the enzymes in the seed
● help the conversion of stored starch to sugar, and
proteins to amino acids
● transport the sugar in solution from the cotyledons to
the growing regions
● expand the vacuoles of new cells, causing the root and
shoot to grow and the leaves to expand
●
 OXYGEN
• The oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, which
provides the energy for the many chemical
changes involved in mobilising the food reserves
and making the new cytoplasm and cell walls of
the growing seedling.
 TEMPERATURE
A rise in temperature speeds up most chemical reactions,
including those taking place in living organisms.
• Germination, therefore, occurs more rapidly at high
temperatures, up to about 40°C.
• Above 45°C, the enzymes in the cells are denatured
and the seedlings would be killed.
• Below certain temperatures (e.g. 0–4°C) germination
may not start at all in some seeds.
• However, there is considerable variation in the range of
temperatures at which seeds of different species will
germinate.
 Germination of Seeds
• Light is not one of the conditions for
germination of seeds.
• It is only necessary after the seed leaves
appear. Why?
• Some seeds also do not germinate as soon
as they are shed even though the conditions
are very favourable. They have a dormant
period.

Mrs Theresa Teo GE2003 107

 Last slide

The END

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